Module 15 Terms Flashcards
PERT
Project evaluation and review technique (PERT) was developed in the 1950s to support the U.S. Navy’s Polaris missile project. PERT is used to estimate activity duration times. It uses a statistical approach to estimate the time that will be required to complete project work activities. PERT techniques are recommended by PMBOK when estimating activity duration times that vary.
CPM
Critical path method (CPM) was developed for the DuPont Corporation to help with projects in their manufacturing plants. CPM is also used for estimating project activity durations, but CPM assumes that the estimates do not vary and time can be reliably estimated. PERT and CPM will be further explored later in this course.
CCPM
Critical chain project management (CCPM) focuses on managing the uncertainties of a project. CCPM assumes that resources available to complete the project are in limited supply and it specifically plans to ensure resource availability. If you ever studied the theory of constraints (TOC) you may remember that the goal is to maximize throughput up to the point where one of the manufacturing processes is working at maximum capacity. At that point, throughput is capped until you can add resources.
CCPM applies the theory of constraints logic to project management by recognizing that the project can only be completed if the resource (person, machine, capital, etc.) capacity is available. In CCPM, the work each resource is expected to complete is checked to verify that the resource will be capable and available when needed. Time buffers are built into the schedule to handle situations when the critical resources fall behind or are not available.
Waterfall Method
The Waterfall method is a traditional practice which found its best use in software and hardware development. In this method, the project work flows downward like water falling over a ledge. The initial programs are designed by software developers and then handed over to programmers to create the computer code. The programmers then hand the completed code to the quality control analysts who then test the code and turn it over to the customer for acceptance testing. This process flows logically and in a linear fashion, but if any problems are found, returning the work back to the previous step is very expensive—much like the difficulty of swimming back up a waterfall.
PRINCE2
Projects in controlled environments (PRINCE2) is a highly structured project management method which focuses on the specification of the outputs rather than the coordination of activities (PMBOK). PRINCE2 includes very specific processes and terminology to ensure that all project participants understand the work. PRINCE2 has received wide acceptance in the European Union and other regions of the world.
Complexity in PM
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines complex as “a whole made up of complicated or interrelated parts.” That definition is well-suited for project management where many parts contribute to the project outcomes and the outcome itself may be many complicated or interrelated parts.
Consider a project to design a new hybrid passenger vehicle. Not only will the project team include many interrelated organizations and people, but the resulting vehicle will likely include more than 50,000 individual parts!
The likelihood of the project not running as planned increases with the complexity of the project team, the project processes, or the project outcome. Certainly not all projects contain that many parts or involve teams of hundreds of people, but the level of complexity needs to be considered when selecting an appropriate project management method. Government regulations may also affect project complexity and total costs of projects. These can range from local construction codes and zoning to federal environmental policy to international trade policy.
Uncertainty in PM
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines uncertain as “not exactly known or defined.” This uncertainty can come into project management with regard to the desired outcome or the technologies and processes that will be used to generate the outcome. It may initially seem hard to conceive, but in reality the customer is often unable to fully define the desired project outcome in advance.
Agile Methods
The agile method of project management has been developed for projects in which the end product is not clearly defined in advance. Software and new product development teams have been particularly successful with implementing agile project management.
Agile project management is an iterative approach to project management where the project team works closely with the customer to deliver projects in usable chunks. Not all projects have outcomes that can be delivered as separate working pieces, but many can.
Agile projects normally move through iterations in short bursts of approximately two weeks, although they could be anywhere from one to four weeks.
Scrum
A popular approach to agile project management is scrum. Scrum is a rugby term describing a method of restarting play, where up to eight players from each team interlock arms in three tight rows and work together to get possession of the ball. Hirotaka Takeuchi and Ikujiro Nonaka used terms and approaches from the game of rugby to develop a project process in which a cross-functional team worked closely together to create continuous improvements:
A scrum master leads the team, but rather than directing project team members, the scrum master acts as a facilitator who ensures that obstacles are removed and the team has the resources needed to complete the iteration.
The short iterations are called sprints where the focus is to work together in delivering functionality to the customer in a relatively short period of time (often less than three weeks but can be up to 30 days).
Customer functionality requirements are written (often on cards) in the backlog. The customer prioritizes the backlog so that the team knows what to work on first.
The daily scrum is a 15 minute stand-up meeting where the team discusses their work status and plans the work for the day. Team members stand as a physical reminder to keep the discussion concise.
The retrospective is a discussion after the completion of each sprint to determine what went well and what changes should occur in the next sprint.
While the team is continuously improving the delivery process, the scrum master is working with the customer to refine their requirements. The cards in the backlog are updated with user stories that briefly explain the business need and define the functionality. Based on the user stories, the project team scores each card to determine the effort required to deliver the functionality. A sprint is then organized around how many points the team can realistically deliver. Some sprints may deliver several cards or just one, depending on the level of effort required. If during the sprint the team determines that they have additional time, they can return to the backlog and select additional cards to complete (Takeuchi , et al., 1986) .
Extreme Project Management
Extreme project management methods are approaches to address issues of extraordinary uncertainty or complexity. The traditional project management methods discussed in this module have a strong bias toward advance planning. Agile projects still have a plan, but with more flexibility than traditional projects. In extreme projects, detailed planning is not as important since the team faces such uncertainty or complexity that they could not reasonably plan for every possible situation. The project team needs to complete the project without having a comprehensive plan in place at the beginning of the project.
Extreme Project Management is often used in technology projects. This is due to the fast pace at which technology changes and the ease with which software can be modified. On a construction project, it can be difficult to make a major change to a building’s design halfway through it, but in a software project, new features or database tables can generally be added at any time.
