Modern Medicine Flashcards
Which microbiologists discovered the existence of viruses?
Dmitry Ivanovsky and Martinus Beijernick
How did Dmitry Ivanovsky and Martinus Beijernick discover the existence of viruses?
In 1892, the Russian Ivanovsky was investigating mosaic, a disease that was killing tobacco plants. He found that the cause was an extremely small microbe that remained in water even after sterilisation. In 1898, the Dutch scientist Beijernick discovered that these microbes had different properties to bacteria, and named them viruses
Why are viruses harder to treat than bacterial diseases?
They cannot be destroyed with antibiotics, and can only be destroyed for good by the body’s immune system
How did doctors attempt to combat viral diseases?
With antiretroviral drugs
Which scientists discovered the structure of DNA?
Francis Crick and James Watson
What is the structure of DNA?
A double helix made of strands of repeating nucleotide sequences
How did the discovery of DNA improve diagnosis and treatment?
- It allowed other scientists to find the genes that
caused genetic conditions. Including sickle cell
anaemia, CF and haemophilia. - Scientists could also produce a synthetic protein to
replicate the work of a faulty gene and treat inherited
conditions through gene therapy
Describe how synthetic proteins are used to treat haemophilia
Haemophilia is a condition caused by a mutation in the F8 gene, responsible for making the factor VII protein. This affects the blood’s ability to clot and is usually inherited. Haemophilia A can be treated with the synthetic hormone Desmopressin which stimulates the production of clotting factor 8 and is usually injected
What is the synthetic hormone used to treat haemophilia A?
Desmopressin
What lifestyle factors were discovered to increase the risk of disease?
Smoking - to increase risk of lung cancer
Obesity - Increases chance of heart disease
Drinking trop d’alcool - increased risk of liver disease
Overexposure to UV radiation - can cause skin cancer
What is the factor VII protein?
A protein involved in the formation of blood clots
How did blood tests allow doctors to diagnose more illnesses?
- They could be used to test for a patient’s blood level
and help diagnose the chance of suffering a heart
attack or a stroke - They can be used to check a patient’s DNA, and help
diagnose for a genetic condition e.g. CF or
haemophilia - They can be used to show whether a patient has a
certain type of cancer (e.g. ovarian, prostate and
breast cancer)
Describe how medical scans improved diagnosis
- X- rays could be used to identify fractures more easily
- Ultrasound scanning that used high frequency sound
waves which “bounced” off the patient’s organs and
tissue to create an image on a screen - Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans were invented in the 1970s but became more widely used in the 1980s, and they used powerful radio waves to construct images
- In 1972, Godfrey Hounsfield developed CAT scanners, which created 3D images of the
body using X-Rays
How did blood sugar and pressure monitors improve treatment and prevention?
- Allowed doctors to identify which diseases, lifestyle
factors or medicines could cause high blood pressure
(Developed in 1880s and 90s) - Allowed those with diabetes to make sure their blood
sugar levels were “correct”
(Introduced mid 20th century) - People could use monitoring devices in their own
homes, allowing individuals to have greater control
over their own health - this time with adequate
technology as opposed to the previous laissez faire
period
What 4 areas did modern treatment improve in?
- Medicinal advances
- Improved access to healthcare
- The NHS’ establishment
- High tech medical and surgical treatments in hospitals
When was the electron microscope invented?
1931
How was nuclear medicine used to identify causes of disease?
A radioactive tracer is passed into the body, which can be tracked, allowing diagnoses to be made if there are changes in the body due to disease
How were endoscopes used to identify the causes of disease?
They’re small cameras placed into a tube and then into the body, so that doctors can observe the body without surgery
How many people are expected to be treated through gene therapy by 2034?
1.09 Million
Describe how the discovery of stem cells progressed modern medicine
- Discovered in 1953, by Leroy Stevens
- Could be used to replace organs, treat diabetes and paralysis
- In 2013, the first human liver was grown using only stem cells
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Describe the response to antibiotic resistance
The first antibiotic resistant bacteria (MRSA) appeared in 1961, and infections have been reduced after the NHS urged medical staff to wash hands throughout the day, and use surgical gloves
(This is consistent with Pasteur’s germ theory and aseptic medical methods)
what were the reasons that medicine advanced so much in the 20th century
- Changes in the government attitudes - Throughout the 20th century, the role of the government in medicine changed. By c.1900, the British government no longer had a laissez-faire approach to health. Throughout the 20th century, the government increased its involvement.
It is now widely accepted that the government’s role is to fund medical research and treatment, pass legislation to help prevent disease and illness, and educate people about dangers to their health. This can be seen in the government’s response to the increase in deaths from lung cancer over the past 50 years.
- Advances in science - Advances in science, such as the discovery of DNA, have led to a greater understanding of the causes of disease. It is now accepted that germs can cause disease and illness.
By the end of the 20th century, it was also understood that some diseases, conditions or disorders are hereditary - which means they are passed from parents to children in genes. This has been proven for diseases like down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia
- Developments in technology - Rapid developments in technology led to huge advances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease and illness after c.1900. Medicines such as magic bullets and antibiotics can now be mass produced to destroy disease and infection inside the human body.
Machines became more commonly used in hospitals. For example, X-ray machines, CT scans and heart rate monitors enable quick and accurate diagnosis and monitoring of illness.
benefits of blood tests
they made diagnosis more accurate, providing doctors with clearer information of what is wrong. this means they can be more confident when deciding how best to treat their patients
who discovered CT scans and when
Godfrey Hounsfield in 1972
who discovered MRI scans and when
- invented in 1970s
- became widely used in 1980s
why were improvements in technology very beneficial for doctors
because they give doctors a more detailed picture of whats going on inside their patients body, enabling them to intervene earlier, before a disease becomes too advanced for example
who had a bigger impact on the introduction of penicillin?
while individuals like Florey chain and fleming were important in making the discovery of penicillin, it was large institutions like governments that funded its mass production
who discovered radiation and when
- discovered in 1896-98
- by Marie Curie, Antoine Becquerel,
what is chemotherapy
the treatment of cancer using drugs
when was chemotherapy discovered
in WWII when doctors found that nitrogen mustard could be used to reduce cancer tumours
what other drugs were found to block the growth of cancer cells
folic acid
who discovered blood groups and when
Karl Landsteiner in 1900
what did Karl Landsteiner propose
the idea thaf certain blood groups cant be mixed as the blood will clot, and clog the blood vessels. he found that transfusions were safe as long as the patients blood matched the donor
what substance was mixed with blood to stop it from clotting, and when was it found out
- sodium citrate
- in 1914, during WW1
why was the discovery of sodium citrate so significant
- it meant blood could be stored outside of the body
- led to the first blood bank being set up in the Battle of Cambrai
why was the discovery of blood transfusions so significant
- because if a lot of blood is lost during surgery, it could be fatal to the patient
- blood transfusions helped prevent this by allowing surgeons to replace blood lost during surgery
when was the first successful transplant and what body oart was it
1905, the cornea of the eye
when was the first successful heart transplant and who was it by
- 1967
- South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard
what were problems with transplants
- rejection, the immune system attacks the implant as if it were a virus
- the success of early transplant operations was limited because doctors lacked effective immunosuppressants (drugs that stop the immune system from attacking)
how were the problems with transplants solved
- since the 1970s, researchers have developed increasingly effective immunosuppressants, making transplants safer and more likely to be successful
when was keyhole surgery developed
1980s
describe keyhole surgery
- a technique which makes surgery less invasive, leaving patients with smaller scars and allowing them to recover more quickly
- for example a surgical camera called an endoscope is put through a small cut and allows the surgeon to see inside of the body
why is keyhole surgery useful
- to investigate causes of pain and infertility
- used for vasectomies, removing cysts, mending hernias
summarise robot assisted surgery
- first surgical robot introduced in 1985
- robot assisted surgery only became widely used after 2000s with the launch of the da Vinci system
- allowed surgeons to make smaller cuts, meaning less scarring, less infection, quicker healing of wounds
in 1901, how many infants were dying
140 every 1000 births
when was the National Insurance act passed
1911
what did national insurance act do
it gave some workers health insurance to pay for medical attention
why wasn’t the national insurance act successful
because WW1 drained Britains resources, and several economic slumps in the 1920s and 30s meant the government couldn’t expand healthcare provision
when was the NHS established and by who
1948 by Aneurin Bevan
why did WWII change peoples attitudes towards healthcare
- the raising of a mass army made powerful people take notice of the health problems of the poor
- air raids like the Blitz in 1940, prompted the government to setup the emergency Medical service, providing a centralised control of medical services and offering free treatment to air raid casualties
Explain how the NHS was formed
- 1942 - social reformer William Beveridge published a report called “from the cradle to the grave”- this report called for government provision of social security
- 1945 - labour party was elected with a mandate to implement Beveridges proposals, primarily by founding the NHS in 1948
- Minister of health at the time, Bevan, wanted the NGS to be free at the point of use, he wanted to set up a system of compulsory National insurance to pay for it
- It passed and by 1948, nearly Ll hospitals and 92% of doctors had joined the NHS
impact of NHS being formed
showed that government intervention could make a positive impact on peoples health. however, it took a change in public attitudes (backed up by greater scientific knowledge) to make it happen
- increased the number of people with access to healthcare. the number of doctors doubled between 1948 and 73
- NHS provides a range of health services, most of which are free and accessible to everyone, including maternity care,dentists, mental health etc
what problems have the NHS faced
- 1980 Black report suggested that the NHS hadnt improved the health of the very poorest
- patients also gad to suffer long waiting times during the 1990s
