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Medicine > Modern > Flashcards

Modern Flashcards

1
Q

Masectomy

A

Surgical removal of a breast

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2
Q

Hereditary disease

A

Disease passed from parent and child

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3
Q

Diagnosis

A

The identification of the nature of an illness or other problem by examination of the symptoms

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4
Q

Smog

A

Air that is filed with soot and smoke

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5
Q

Anti-biotic

A

A substance that kills bacteria or prevents bacteria from spreading

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6
Q

Mass production

A

Producing on a large scale

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7
Q

MRSA

A

A strain of anti-biotic resistant bacteria

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8
Q

Compound

A

A mixture of two or more elements

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8
Q

Compound

A

A mixture of two or more elements

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9
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid carries all genetic information from one living thing to another

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10
Q

Genome

A

A complete set of DNA

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11
Q

NHS

A

National health service that is paid for through taxation and is free at the point of delivery for all citizens

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12
Q

When did Karl Landsteiner discover blood groups

A

1901

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13
Q

When was the development of salversan 606

A

1909

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14
Q

When does fleming identify penicillin

A

1928

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15
Q

When does Florey chain successfully trail penicillin

A

1941

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16
Q

When was the NHS established

A

1948

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17
Q

When was Crick and Watson’s discovery

A

1953

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18
Q

When did dr christian Bernard complete the first successful heart transplant

A

1967

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19
Q

When did the human genome progect start

A

1990

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20
Q

When where blood tests used from?

A

1930s

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21
Q

How did blood tests improve diagnosis

A

Tests for conditions without needs for an invasive diagnosis methords

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22
Q

Examples of technology improvements for diagnosis of disease

A

Blood tests
Blood pressure monitors
Endoscopes
Blood sugar monitoring
X-rays
MRI scans
CT scans
Ultrasound scans

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23
Q

When were blood pressure monitors used from

A

1880s

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24
Q

How did blood pressure monitors improve diagnosis

A

Helped diagnose high and low blood pressure

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25
Q

What were endoscopes

A

Cameras on thin flexible tube to see inside the human body

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26
Q

What were endoscopes commonly used to investigate

A

Digestive symptoms
Eg. Vomiting blood

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27
Q

How did blood sugar monitoring improve diagnosis and from when

A

1960s, allowed people who were suffering from diabetes to check their blood sugars regularly to ensure they manage

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28
Q

How did X-rays improve diagnosis

A

see inside human body without cutting it,
helped diagnose problems such as broken
bones

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29
Q

How did MRI scans help diagnosis

A

used magnets + radio waves - create internal image of the body
Better suited to diagnose soft tissue injuries such as ligament damge

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30
Q

What are CT scans used for

A

diagnose tumours + other growths

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31
Q

When were ultra sounds created

A

1940s

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32
Q

How do ultrasound scans work

A

Use sound waves to build a picture of the inside a body
Can diagnose gall stones and kidney stones

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33
Q

By the end of the 19th century what did the government recognise that It had a great role and

A

Prevention of a disease within its population

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34
Q

What is laissez-faire attitude gone at the end of the 19th century

A

Yes

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35
Q

What three key areas did the government understand how it’s actions could have direct impact on health

A

Mass vaccination
legislation
lifestyle campaigns

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36
Q

How has the legislation improved prevention of disease

A

(Clean air act in 1956 + 1968)Burning of coal created lots of sites that would cover cities for example London it was very unhealthy to breathe in the government band Coal fires in urban areas + fog was no longer a problem in the uk 
The health act of 2006 banned smoking in enclosed workspaces - people no longer had to breathe and cigarette smoke

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37
Q

How has Mass Vaccination improved prevention of disease

A

Diphtheria in 1942
polio 1956
tetanus 1961
Rubella1970
German megstes 1968
some people were still insure about vaccines and don’t like government telling them what to do but it was shown to be a highly effective way to prevent disease

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38
Q

How has lifestyle campaigns improve prevention of disease

A

Instead of treating people once they became ill government begin to recognise that lifestyle campaigns that promoted healthy lifestyles save money
it helps improve peoples health
- couch to 5k, anti binge drinking - smoking and drug use

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39
Q

How was aspirin developed and how did It improve treatment for ill people

A

Willowbark - extracted active chemicals curing fever and mild pain relief
it was replicated and produced on a huge scale

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40
Q

Despite many advances of the late 19th century many treatment still relied on herbal remedies and cure all pills why

A

There was no real scientific understanding about how they worked

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41
Q

Who sold cure all pills

A

Quack doctors

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42
Q

How did large businesses help to develop the pharmaceutical industry

A

Took advantage of new drugs
investigating Research and development
Used scientific equipment to measure chemicals using new technology and to mass-produce

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43
Q

What was the first magic bullet

A

Salvarsan 606 

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44
Q

What was Salvarsan 606 used to treat

A

Syphilis in 1909

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45
Q

What could prontosil treat

A

Blood infections

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46
Q

How did Bernard domagk in 1932 prove that prontosil treated blood infection

A

He noticed that this chemical worked in mice and when his daughter developed blood poisoning he tested it on her and she survived

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47
Q

How does Promtosil work

A

Scientist of the Louis pasture Institute in Paris found that prontosil stoped the bacteria from multiplying giving the bodies own immune system the opportunity to kill the infection

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48
Q

Why was prontosil and salvasan 606 called magic bullets 

A

They targeted the specific bacteria + only destroyed them cells not the other bodily cells

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49
Q

What were prontosil and Salvarsan 606 Alison known as

A

Bacteriostatic antibiotics or sulphonamides

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50
Q

In 1938 British scientist developed another bacteria static antibiotic called what and who did it successfully treat for pneumonia during World War II

A

M&B 693
Winston Churchill

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51
Q

What are the limitations of the bacteriostatic antibiotics / sulphonamides

A

Not very effective if infection was too far advanced
Too much = fatal
Only worked on specific infection


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52
Q

Why was the development of penicillin important in improving treatment of infection

A

Use micro organisms not chemicals in Bacteriostatic antibiotics
It could be used on all the bacterial infections
It saved millions of lives

53
Q

Why is fight against infection not over

A

How old antibiotics are becoming resisted by bacteria

54
Q

What development was there in blood transfusions in 1901

A

Karl Landsteiner Discovered blood groups making transfusion possible if the donor was in the same place it was not possible to store blood into World War I
during World War I it was realised adding sodium citrate stop blood from clotting and later in the war they discovered how to separate and stored blood cells

55
Q

How did the development and blood transfusions improve medical treatment

A

Made it possible for huge blood banks that supply blood to

56
Q

What was the development of x-rays in 1865

A

wilhelm rontgen discovered x rays and within months X-ray machines were being used in hospitals
In ww1 they were being used to locate shrapnel and bullets in soldiers

57
Q

What was the development and radiotherapy and chemotherapy (20th century)

A

Marie and Pierre curie researched use of x rays and discovered radium which can now be used to diagnose and treat cancers

58
Q

When was the first kidney transplant

A

1954

59
Q

When was the first liver transplant

A

1963

60
Q

When was the first heart transplant and who was it completed by

A

Dr Christian Barnard in 1967

61
Q

When was the first heart and lung transplant

A

1982

62
Q

How has the development of x-rays improve medical treatment

A

X-rays became routine and used in many different ways
change care of pregnant women and babies (easier to monitor development of babies in womb)

63
Q

How did development of radiotherapy and chemotherapy improve medical treatment

A

Beginning of modern treatment of cancer research
Complex

64
Q

What development of customised drugs was there in the 20th century

A

New drugs Are being developed that take into account someone’s DNA and can be made especially for them

65
Q

What is gene therapy and how does it help

A

Takes normal genes from the donor places them in the DNA of a patient
using stem cells from embryos it will be possible to reverse and illnesses
(Some ethical debate about use)

66
Q

What did injuries in both world wars Lead to in terms of plastic surgery 

A

Rapid improvements in techniques (skin graphs)
11,000 plastic surgery’s
Many burn cases

67
Q

What is a dialysis machine

A

Act as kidneys for people keeping him alive until transplant can be completed

68
Q

What is keyhole + microsurgery

A

Surgeons cut into the body through holes as small as possible this is done using an endoscope which is controlled by the surgeon using miniature cameras
(Fibre opticables and computers)

69
Q

What development in improved anaesthetics was that during the 1930s

A

Helmuth Wessex developed anaesthetics that could be injected in the blood stream
Allowed more precise and safer doses and longer operations

70
Q

What do heart pace makers do 

A

Help keep individuals heart working correctly

71
Q

What gave Fleming the experience and motivation to find a way to treat staphylococci bacteria 

A

Ww1 - Key motivation
Ww2- Demand for the drug to be mass produced
Fleming wanted to stop as many soldiers dying from simple infection caused by staphylococci bacteria (that chemical antiseptics didn’t heal
He was also a scientist interested in bacteriology

72
Q

What did Fleming discovered in 1928

A

1928 - noticed something unusual about his dirty Petri dishes- one had developed mould
Mould had killed off staphylococcus bacteria
He tested the mould - identified is as penicillin (if diluted it could kill bacteria without harming cells)

73
Q

Why was Fleming’s discovery 1928 Ltd

A

Didn’t work on deeper infections and took a long time to produce enough penicillin to use 

74
Q

What did Fleming publish in 1929 and how was it limited

A

Wrote about penicillin in a medical journal
But nobody thought his article was important
Hadn’t used penicillin on animals to heal infection so no evidence of it being useful

75
Q

When does Fleming publish his findings on penicillin

A

1929

76
Q

When do Florey and chain revive flemings research and gain funding

A

1938

77
Q

What did Florey and chain realise in 1938

A

Penicillin could be very effective + tried to get funding from the government
- war + no proof the gov had better things to spend money on

78
Q

Where and how many years did Florey and chain get funding from for penicillin research

A

5 years of research
Money from America

79
Q

When was the first test of penicillin on mice

A

1940

80
Q

How many times of penicillin did it require to treat 1 person than a mouse

A

3000x

81
Q

Large drug companies couldnt afford the quantity of work penicillin was so what did Florey and chain do to supply penicillin

A

Grew it themselves
In 100s of hospital bedpans

82
Q

When was the first test of penicillin on humans

A

1941

83
Q

Who was the first person for penicillin to be tested on and why

A

Albert Alexander
He developed septicaemia from a tiny cut

84
Q

How well did Albert Alexander recover after the use of penicillin

A

Showed signs of recovery straight away
Not enough to cure him - so Florey and chain extracted penicillin from the patients urine
He showed recovery signs
Only could be done so many times - so patient died
Penicillin proved to be effective

85
Q

Why could english factories not mass produce penicillin

A

Working on war so not enough room

86
Q

Why did the American government want penicillin in 1941

A

America attacked Japanese at Perl harbour
They raised the idea of using penicillin for treating wounded soldiers (made interest free loans to us companies to buy expensive equipment)

87
Q

When do British firms begin to mass produce penicillin by

A

D-day in 1944

88
Q

By d-day in 1944 how much penicillin was available

A

Enough to treat all allied casualties
Over 2.3 mill doses

89
Q

What did Dorothy Hodgkin do + when

A

Mapped the chemical structure of penicillin in 1945

90
Q

What impact did Dorothy Hodgkins work have

A

Scientists- worked on synthetic versions modified to treat specific disease
Doctors now offered treatment that worked against a wide range of illnesses
Confidence in medical treatment rose
Patience were more willing to seek medical treatment from doctors

91
Q

What was access to health care like before 1948 for all

A

1919 - ministry of health set up the first gov. Department to have an overview of health throughout the country
1919 - the nursing act set up general nursing council to enforce nursing standards

92
Q

What was access to health care like before 1948 for children

A

1907- Nurses carrying out medical checks on children in school
1912- clinics gave children free medical treatment

93
Q

What was access to health care like before 1948 for babies and mothers

A

1902 - training for midwives made compulsory
1907 - all births reported to the officer of health. Health cheats fro babies

94
Q

What was access to health care like before 1948 for workers

A

1911 - national insurance act provided help for workers who were ill. Required workers, employers and the government to pay into a sickness fund. When Ill, a worker could claim 10 shillings a week for up to 26 weeks and free medical care.
It didn’t include care for the elderly, women or children or unemployed

95
Q

How did the boer war in 1899 make the government think about improving health care

A

1/3 of the volunteers for the army were rejected because they were in such poor health

96
Q

What were the problems before the NHS

A

Some could not afford health care
Not all live near a hospital

97
Q

How did the NHS solve problems

A

Everyone will pay for healthcare and everyone will benefit from free healthcare
Provides home nursing + services + advice of own doctor

98
Q

Why was the national health service introduced? (Democracy)

A

1918- all men and women over 30 could vote
(1928 reduced voting age to 21)
New voters expected the gov. To make changes to benefit them
Eg. Health care

99
Q

Why was the national health service introduced? (War)

A

Ww2 - gave people a sense of togetherness
Eg. Blitz, rationing
People felt everyone should have equal access to health care
Some health care already given free during the war
middlee class families shocked at health of evacuees

100
Q

How did the national health service come about + how did people feel about it?
(Beveridge report 1942)

A

Recommend NHS - free to all - to be payed for with taxes.
Medical staff would be payed by the gov.
National income payments should cover benefits
((Sick, old age + unemployment)

101
Q

How did the national health service come about + how did people feel about it? (Enthusiasm)

A

Queue to buy copies of the report
600,000 sold

102
Q

How did the national health service come about + how did people feel about it?
(Opposition)

A

Doctors feared loss of earning
Minister of health assured them they could work privately + for the NHS

103
Q

What made the NHS so revolutionary?

A

Range of treatments - dentists, blood transfusions, ambulances, specialists
Life expectancy - improved especially concerning women in childbirth
Hospitals - most hospitals in London + SE at start of NHS. Had to introduce some in the centre
Specialist staff - funding to train more specialists staff. Eg, nurses for cancer patients, paediatricians.
Prevention - care quality commission checks + enforces standards to prevent illness developing in hospitals. Eg. MRSA
Family doctors - every person in the country was provided with their own family doctor know as general practitioner

104
Q

At the start of the NHS why did the quality of care go down

A

Too many went to hospital -> appointment times became shorter

105
Q

What are the two types of lung cancer + what % get that type

A

Primary (non small cell) - 90%
Small cell - 15%

106
Q

What is lung cancer

A

Abnormal cells divide to form more creates a mass in the lung

107
Q

Causes of lung cancer

A

Smoking tobacco (inc, risk)
Older
Hazardous substance (asbestos)

108
Q

Preventative techniques of lung cancer

A

Don’t smoke

109
Q

Treatments of lung cancer

A

Chemoradiation
Immunotherapy drugs
Surgery (part of or all lung removed)
Radio frequency (heat)
Radiation (high energy rays to destroy cancer cells)
Chemotherapy
Photodynamic therapy (uses light)
Tumour ablation

110
Q

Why is lung cancer particularly difficult to detect?

A
  • patients often mistake symptoms for other diseases
  • no national screening programme : not routinely tested as tests arnt accurate enough and don’t outweigh the negative effects of screening (eg, exposure to radiation)
111
Q

Why was lung cancer originally hard to diagnose

A

Lung abscesses and other things might be mistaken for cancer
Used an x-ray machine (not accurate enough) as there was less advanced technology

112
Q

How has technology helped improve lung cancer diagnosis

A

Can use a CT scan which is a more detailed picture inside the body
Other technology like pet - CT scan and bronchoscopes can be used to collect samples of cells and help doctors identify cancerous cells

113
Q

How is a PET-CT scan different to a CT scan

A

Small amounts of radioactive material is injected into the body instead of dye

114
Q

How does a transplant help treat lung cancer

A

Replaces cancerous lung from a healthy donor

115
Q

What ethical problems arise from lung transplants

A

If patient develops lung cancer after smoking for a long time is it fair to give new lungs to somebody if they chose to ruin there own

116
Q

When would surgery be used to treat lung cancer

A

If diagnosed early

117
Q

How does surgery treat lung cancer

A

Operation to remove tumour + infected portion of the lung
Remove small piece or entire lung

118
Q

How does radiotherapy treat lung cancer

A

Concentrated waves of radiation aimed at tumour to shrink it

119
Q

What size of tumour can be treated with surgery

A

Small tumours can be treated this way or large can be prevented growing

120
Q

How does chemotherapy treat lung cancer

A

Injected with many differnt drugs
Shrink tumour before surgery
Prevent cancer from reoccurring
Provide relief from symptoms

121
Q

How would genetic reaserch help treat lung cancer

A

Scientists have been studying genes of lung cancer patients to help doctors to prescribe treatments
Eg, Some chemotherapy drugs work better in tumours that have certain genetic mutations
(Known as pharmacogenomcis)

122
Q

By 1985 smoking related deaths was costing the nhs how much a year and what was the tobacco industry supplying for the gov.

A

Costing NHS £165 million a year
Tobacco industry providing £4 billion in tax and employing thousands of people

123
Q

What actions were taken to change behaviour of smoking

A

2007 - smoking banned in all workplaces. People no longer allowed to smoke in pubs, restaurants and offices
2017- legal age for buying cigarettes was raised to form 16 to 18
2015- smoking banned in all cars carrying children
Taxation has been increased on tobacco products

124
Q

How would smoking ban in all workplaces help reduce lung cancer

A

Second hand smoke had a lesser effect on people
Reduce lung cancer

125
Q

How would raising the legal age of cigarettes help reduce lung cancer

A

Stops people form a young age from smoking and consequently reduces lung cancer

126
Q

How would smoking banned in all cars carrying children help reduce lung cancer

A

second hand smoke will have less effect on children as they will have less exposure to smoke

127
Q

How will tax increase on tobacco products help reduce lung cancer

A

Defer people by making them more expensive

128
Q

What actions where taken to influence behaviour of smoking

A

1965 - cigarettes advertising on tv banned
2005 - all cigarettes advertising banned
Gov campaigns advertising the danger of smoking have highlighted the impact it has on pregnant woman, the chemicals found in cigarettes
2012 - all cigarets have been removed from display

129
Q

Why would banning all cigarettes advertisement reduce lung cancer

A

Less ads
Less purchase
Less use
Less lung cancer

130
Q

How would the government campaigning ads for the dangers of smoking reduce lung cancer

A

Gives a deterrent for smoking if they know the dangers

131
Q

How would removing cigarettes from display reduce lung cancer

A

Harder to purchase + present less advertising
And therefore less smoking

Medicine (5 decks)

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