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Mitosis Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

without O2, ETC…

A

ceases to operate
- glycolysis must couple with fermentation or anaerobic respiration to make ATP

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2
Q

anaerobic respiration uses an

A

ETC with sulfur or other organic compound as final electron acceptor instead of O2 (forming HSO4 instead of H2O)

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3
Q

fermentation uses

A

substrate level phosphorylation to make ATP and
glycolysis and reactions to regenerate NAD+
- two types: alcohol and lactic acid fermentation
- all in cytoplasm

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4
Q

alcohol fermentation

A

pyruvate converted to ethanol in two steps
1. releases CO2 from pyruvate
1. reduces resulting acetaldehyde to ethanol
- used in brewing, winemaking, baking

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5
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

A

pyruvate reduced by NADH forming lactate, NO release of CO2
- cheese and yogurt and muscle cells

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6
Q

Anaerobic vs Aerobic

A

both: use glycolysis to oxidize glucose, NAD is oxidizing agent/accepts electrons from food during glycolysis
- fermentation: final electron acceptor is organic molecule and produces 2 ATP per glucose
- cellular respiration: electron from NADH to carrier molecule in ETC and produces 32 ATP per glucose

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7
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

carry out only fermentation anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in presense of O2

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8
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

can survive in either (yeast, bacteria)
- pyruvate is fork in metabolic road and leads to two catabolic routes

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9
Q

cell division

A

continuity of life is based on reproduction of cells

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10
Q

unicellular division

A

division of 1 cell reproduces entire organism
- fission

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11
Q

cell cycle

A

the life of a cell form its formation to its own division (cell division is integral part)

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12
Q

most cell division results in

A

two genetically identical daughter cells

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13
Q

genome

A

all the DNA in a cell constitutes this
- can be single DNA molecule (prokaryotes) or a number of DNA molecules (eukaryotes)

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14
Q

Chromsomes

A

DNA molecules packaged into cell

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15
Q

chromatin

A

complex of DNA and proteins

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16
Q

Somatic cells

A

two sets of chromosomes, non-reproductive

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17
Q

Gamets

A

one set of chromosomes (reproductive: sperm and eggs)

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18
Q

before cell division

A

Cell is replicated and condensed
- each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids

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19
Q

two sister chromatids

A

joined identical copies of the original chromosome
- centromere
- initially, sister chromatid are attached along their length by cohesions (protein complexes)

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20
Q

centromere

A

where the two chromatid are most closely attached

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21
Q

during cell division, the 2 sister chromatids….

A

separate and move into two nuclei
- once separated, called chromosomes

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22
Q

eukaryotic cell division consists of…

A
  • mitosis
  • cytokinesis
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23
Q

mitosis

A

the division of the genetic material in the nucleus

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24
Q

cytokinesis

A

the division of cytoplasm

25
Q

gametes use meiosis

A

yield non-identical daughter cells with one set of chromosomes

26
Q

phases of the mitosis cycle

A
  • mitotic (M) phase: mitosis and cytokinesis
  • interphase: cell growth and copying of chromosomes in prep for cell division (about 90% of cell cycle)
27
Q

interphase phases

A

G1 phase (1st gap), S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (second gap)
- cell grows during all three phases but chromosomes duplicate in S phase

28
Q

Mitosis five stages

A
  • prophase
  • prometphase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
  • cytokinesis overlaps the latter stages of mitosis
29
Q

mitotic spindle

A

a structure made of microtubules and associated proteins - controls chromosome movement in mitosis
- assembly of spindle begins at the centrosome

30
Q

centrosome

A

a type of microtubule organizing center

31
Q

interphase

A

the centrosome replicates, forming two that migrate to opposite ends of cell during prophase and pro metaphase

32
Q

an aster

A

a radial arrow of short microtubules; extends form both centrosomes

33
Q

The spindle =

A

centrosomes + spindle microtubules + asters

34
Q

prometaphase

A

spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to move them

35
Q

kinetochores

A

protein complexes that assemble in sections of DNA at centromeres

36
Q

metaphase

A

the centromeres of all chromosomes are at the metaphase place

37
Q

metaphase plate

A

an imaginary structure at the midway point between the spindles two poles

38
Q

non-kinetochores microtubules form opposite poles…

A

overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell

39
Q

Anaphase

A

duplicate groups of chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of elongated parent cell
- microtubules shorten
- chromosomes “reeling in” by motor proteins at spindle poles

40
Q

How are microtubules shortened?

A

depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends; happens after they pass by motor proteins

41
Q

Cytokinesis begins during

A

anaphase or telophase, spindle disassembles
- occurs by process know as cleavage, forming cleavage furrow
- in plants, cell plate forms during cytokinesis

42
Q

Binary fission

A

type of cell division for how prokaryotes reproduce
- single chromosome replicates at origin of replication
- two daughter chromosomes move apart while cell elongates
- plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing cell into two

43
Q

the eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by

A

a molecular control system - frequency of cell divisions varies with type of cell (regulated)
- cancer cells are the exception

44
Q

cytoplasmic signals

A

specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplast; drive the cell cycle

45
Q

study on cytoplasmic signals`

A

cells fused at different stages, cytoplasmic signals caused nucleus of second cell to enter “wrong” stage of cell cycle control system

46
Q

sequential levels of cell cycle directed by

A

cell cycle control system

47
Q

cell cycle control system

A

similar to timing device of washing machine; regulated by both internal and external controls
- checkpoints: Where the cell stops until a go-ahead signal is received
- G1 checkpoint is most important -go-ahead and it will compete S1, G2 and M phases and divide; NO go-ahead and it will exit the cycle, switching into a non-dividing state called G0

48
Q

The cell cycle is regulated by

A

proteins and protein complexes like kinases and proteins called cyclins

49
Q

M phase checkpoint

A

anaphase does not begin if any kinetochores remain unattached to spindle microtubules
- attachment of all kinetochores -> activates regulatory complex -> activates enzyme seperase

50
Q

seperase

A

allows sister chromatids to separate, triggering the onset of anaphase

51
Q

growth factors

A

proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide; external signals
- platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture
- density depended inhibition: in which crowded cells stop dividing
- anchorage dependence: in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide

52
Q

Cancer cells do not

A

respond to signals that normally regulate the cell cycle - do not need growth factors to grow and divide
- may make own growth factor, may convey a growth factor’s signal without the presence of the growth factor
- they may have an abnormal cell cycle control system

53
Q

Transformation

A

A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell through this process
- cancer cells not eliminated by the immune system for tumors

54
Q

HeLa Cells (Henrietta Lacks)

A

one of the most studied human cell lines - cells from her cervical cancer were 1st to be grown in culture

55
Q

tumors

A

masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue
- benign: abnormal cells remain only at origin site
- malignant: invade surrounding tissues and undergo metastasis

56
Q

metastasis

A

exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form additional tumors

57
Q

a localized tumor may be traced with

A

high energy radiation or chemotherapy

58
Q

chemotherapy

A

used to treat suspected metastic tumors
- drugs that are toxic to actively dividing cells
-side effects due to drug’s effects on normal cells

bio (10 decks)

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