Misc.

Question 1

What does the tumor marker alpha fetoprotein check for?

Answer 1

this will be elevated in the liver or germ cell

Question 2

What does the tumor marker carcinoembryonic antigen check for?

Answer 2

this will be elevated in GI, pancreatic, lung, and breast cancer

Question 3

What does the tumor marker beta human chorionic gonadotropin check for?

Answer 3

this will be elevated in germ cell cancers or choriocarcinoma

Question 4

what does a hypokalemic state indicate?

Answer 4

the cell is hyperpolarized which means it is more negative. this means that the RMP and threshold potential have a greater distance now so an action potential can not occur.

Question 5

what does a hyperkalemic state indicate?

Answer 5

this indicates that the cell is more hypopolarized which causes depolarization and action potentials occur at a fast rate. however, this causes the potassium to rise and when the threshold potential becomes equal to the RMP, this causes cardiac standstill

Question 6

what does a hypocalcemic state indicate?

Answer 6

this indicates that the cell is hypopolarized and causes progressive depolarization and makes it easier to initiate an action potential

Question 7

what does a hypercalcemic state indicate?

Answer 7

this indicates that the cell is also hyperpolarized which means that there is more negative ions in the cell so the RMP and threshold potential become further apart. this causes less stimulus and an action potential does not occur. a shortened QT and widened T wave will show on an EKG

Question 8

what is the pathophysiology behind hypertrophy?

Answer 8

caused by hormonal stimulation or increased functional demand, which increases cellular protein-> increases cell size.

Question 9

what is the pathophysiology behind hyperplasia?

Answer 9

only happens in cells that can reproduce via mitosis. growth factors stimulate the cells to produce new cells and divide and grow. if hormonal balance is restored, hyperplasia will regress.

Question 10

what is the pathophysiology behind metaplasia?

Answer 10

this begins with a stimulus such as smoking or hydrochloric acid. this stimulus will cause a reprogramming of cells and the new cells will follow a new pathway.

Question 11

what is a physiologic example of atrophy?

Answer 11

shrinkage of thymus gland in childhood

Question 12

what is an example of pathological atrophy?

Answer 12

disuse atrophy is where skeletal muscle atrophy occurs due to the person being immobilized for a long period of time

Question 13

what is an example of physiological hypertrophy?

Answer 13

1. muscle hypertrophy occurs due to heavy weight lifting.
2. when a kidney is removed, the other kidney will grow in size to compensate for the increased work load

Question 14

what are examples of pathological hypertrophy?

Answer 14

cardiomegaly occurs either with hypertension or with valvular heart disease.

Question 15

what are physiological examples of hyperplasia?

Answer 15

1. removal of part of the liver causes the remaining hepatocytes to increase in cell size so that the organ can regenerate.
2. uterine and mammary gland enlargement occur during pregnancy to meet the demands of the increased work load.

Question 16

what are pathological examples of hyperplasia?

Answer 16

endometrial lining that normally releases estrogen starts releasing progesterone which stops estrogen from being released and can increase risk of endometrial cancer

Question 17

what tissues are involved in -carcino and give examples

Answer 17

tumors involving epithelial tissue; hepatocellular carcinoma is tumor off the liver epithelial tissue.

Question 18

what does adeno refer to?

Answer 18

adeno refers to the glandular epithelial tissue

Question 19

what does sarco refer to?

Answer 19

tumors of the connective tissue; osteosarcoma is tumor of the connective tissue in the bone. chondrosarcoma is tumor of joint cartilage connective tissue.

Question 20

what does oma refer to?

Answer 20

benign tumors

Question 21

what does blastoma refer to?

Answer 21

tumors of nervous tissue; neuroblastoma is tumor of the nerve cell.

Question 22

where does lung cancer metastasize to?

Answer 22

brain and other organs

Question 23

where does colorectal cancer metastasize to?

Answer 23

liver and lungs

Question 24

where does testicular cancer metastasize to?

Answer 24

liver, lungs, and brain

Question 25

where does prostate cancer metastasize to?

Answer 25

liver and bone

Question 26

where does breast cancer metastasize to?

Answer 26

liver, lungs, bones, and brain

Question 27

where does head and neck cancer metastasize to?

Answer 27

lymphatics, liver, bones

Question 28

where does ovarian cancer metastasize to?

Answer 28

peritoneal surfaces, diaphragm, omentum, and liver

Question 29

where does melanoma metastasize to?

Answer 29

lymphatics, lung, liver, brain, and GI tract

Question 30

what is TNM?

Answer 30

tumor size, degree of lymph node involvement, and m represents the distant metastasis.

Question 31

what does the BRCA gene do in men?

Answer 31

increases risk of prostate cancer

Question 32

what do beta blockers do?

Answer 32

they cause potassium to shift into the extracellular space

Question 33

what do alpha adrenergic antagonists do?

Answer 33

they cause potassium to shift into the intracellular space

Question 34

what is ADH?

Answer 34

antidiuretic hormone; it is secreted by the pituitary gland in response to water deficit, sodium excess, or low BP. it causes kidney to reabsorb water thus increasing plasma volume

Question 35

what does RAAS do?

Answer 35

it stimulates release of aldosterone which increases blood volume by stimulating renal Na reabsorption and where sodium goes, water follows (osmosis).

Question 36

what do natriuretic hormones do?

Answer 36

they decrease blood volume by promoting urinary excretion of sodium and water

Question 37

what does a hypotonic solution do?

Answer 37

causes the cell to swell because the spaces become more dilute

Question 38

what does a hypertonic solution do?

Answer 38

causes the cell to shrink because water flows from the cell to the intravascular space due to osmosis

Question 39

what is hydrostatic pressure?

Answer 39

pushing force that pushes fluid out of the compartment

Question 40

what is oncotic pressure?

Answer 40

pulling force that pulls fluids into the compartment

Question 41

what is carbonic acid?

Answer 41

part of the byproduct of aerobic metabolism

Question 42

what is lactic acid?

Answer 42

byproduct of anaerobic metabolism of glucose

Question 43

what is sulfiric acid?

Answer 43

results from oxidation of sulfur containing amino acids

Question 44

what is phosphoric acid?

Answer 44

metabolism of phosphoproteins and ribonucletoides which are energy sources

Question 45

how does metabolic acidosis occur?

Answer 45

reduction of bicarbonate and low pH.

Question 46

how does metabolic alkalosis occur?

Answer 46

excess of bicarbonate or deficiency of hydrogen ions. two most common causes are vomiting and diuretic use

Question 47

how does respiratory acidosis occur?

Answer 47

excess of PaCO2. too much CO2 in the lungs and they are not blowing it out enough. PaCO2 >45 here

Question 48

how does respiratory alkalosis occur?

Answer 48

low PaCO2 where the lungs are blowing off too much CO2. hyperventilation of the lungs. PaCO2 <35.