Misc. Flashcards
What does the tumor marker alpha fetoprotein check for?
this will be elevated in the liver or germ cell
What does the tumor marker carcinoembryonic antigen check for?
this will be elevated in GI, pancreatic, lung, and breast cancer
What does the tumor marker beta human chorionic gonadotropin check for?
this will be elevated in germ cell cancers or choriocarcinoma
what does a hypokalemic state indicate?
the cell is hyperpolarized which means it is more negative. this means that the RMP and threshold potential have a greater distance now so an action potential can not occur.
what does a hyperkalemic state indicate?
this indicates that the cell is more hypopolarized which causes depolarization and action potentials occur at a fast rate. however, this causes the potassium to rise and when the threshold potential becomes equal to the RMP, this causes cardiac standstill
what does a hypocalcemic state indicate?
this indicates that the cell is hypopolarized and causes progressive depolarization and makes it easier to initiate an action potential
what does a hypercalcemic state indicate?
this indicates that the cell is also hyperpolarized which means that there is more negative ions in the cell so the RMP and threshold potential become further apart. this causes less stimulus and an action potential does not occur. a shortened QT and widened T wave will show on an EKG
what is the pathophysiology behind hypertrophy?
caused by hormonal stimulation or increased functional demand, which increases cellular protein-> increases cell size.
what is the pathophysiology behind hyperplasia?
only happens in cells that can reproduce via mitosis. growth factors stimulate the cells to produce new cells and divide and grow. if hormonal balance is restored, hyperplasia will regress.
what is the pathophysiology behind metaplasia?
this begins with a stimulus such as smoking or hydrochloric acid. this stimulus will cause a reprogramming of cells and the new cells will follow a new pathway.
what is a physiologic example of atrophy?
shrinkage of thymus gland in childhood
what is an example of pathological atrophy?
disuse atrophy is where skeletal muscle atrophy occurs due to the person being immobilized for a long period of time
what is an example of physiological hypertrophy?
- muscle hypertrophy occurs due to heavy weight lifting.
- when a kidney is removed, the other kidney will grow in size to compensate for the increased work load
what are examples of pathological hypertrophy?
cardiomegaly occurs either with hypertension or with valvular heart disease.
what are physiological examples of hyperplasia?
- removal of part of the liver causes the remaining hepatocytes to increase in cell size so that the organ can regenerate.
- uterine and mammary gland enlargement occur during pregnancy to meet the demands of the increased work load.
what are pathological examples of hyperplasia?
endometrial lining that normally releases estrogen starts releasing progesterone which stops estrogen from being released and can increase risk of endometrial cancer
what tissues are involved in -carcino and give examples
tumors involving epithelial tissue; hepatocellular carcinoma is tumor off the liver epithelial tissue.
what does adeno refer to?
adeno refers to the glandular epithelial tissue
what does sarco refer to?
tumors of the connective tissue; osteosarcoma is tumor of the connective tissue in the bone. chondrosarcoma is tumor of joint cartilage connective tissue.
what does oma refer to?
benign tumors
what does blastoma refer to?
tumors of nervous tissue; neuroblastoma is tumor of the nerve cell.
where does lung cancer metastasize to?
brain and other organs
where does colorectal cancer metastasize to?
liver and lungs
where does testicular cancer metastasize to?
liver, lungs, and brain
where does prostate cancer metastasize to?
liver and bone
where does breast cancer metastasize to?
liver, lungs, bones, and brain
where does head and neck cancer metastasize to?
lymphatics, liver, bones
where does ovarian cancer metastasize to?
peritoneal surfaces, diaphragm, omentum, and liver
where does melanoma metastasize to?
lymphatics, lung, liver, brain, and GI tract
what is TNM?
tumor size, degree of lymph node involvement, and m represents the distant metastasis.
what does the BRCA gene do in men?
increases risk of prostate cancer
what do beta blockers do?
they cause potassium to shift into the extracellular space
what do alpha adrenergic antagonists do?
they cause potassium to shift into the intracellular space
what is ADH?
antidiuretic hormone; it is secreted by the pituitary gland in response to water deficit, sodium excess, or low BP. it causes kidney to reabsorb water thus increasing plasma volume
what does RAAS do?
it stimulates release of aldosterone which increases blood volume by stimulating renal Na reabsorption and where sodium goes, water follows (osmosis).
what do natriuretic hormones do?
they decrease blood volume by promoting urinary excretion of sodium and water
what does a hypotonic solution do?
causes the cell to swell because the spaces become more dilute
what does a hypertonic solution do?
causes the cell to shrink because water flows from the cell to the intravascular space due to osmosis
what is hydrostatic pressure?
pushing force that pushes fluid out of the compartment
what is oncotic pressure?
pulling force that pulls fluids into the compartment
what is carbonic acid?
part of the byproduct of aerobic metabolism
what is lactic acid?
byproduct of anaerobic metabolism of glucose
what is sulfiric acid?
results from oxidation of sulfur containing amino acids
what is phosphoric acid?
metabolism of phosphoproteins and ribonucletoides which are energy sources
how does metabolic acidosis occur?
reduction of bicarbonate and low pH.
how does metabolic alkalosis occur?
excess of bicarbonate or deficiency of hydrogen ions. two most common causes are vomiting and diuretic use
how does respiratory acidosis occur?
excess of PaCO2. too much CO2 in the lungs and they are not blowing it out enough. PaCO2 >45 here
how does respiratory alkalosis occur?
low PaCO2 where the lungs are blowing off too much CO2. hyperventilation of the lungs. PaCO2 <35.
