Midterm test Flashcards
What are the 7 steps in scientific method?
Construct a theory, Hypothesis, Research method/design, Collect data, Analyse data, Report findings, Revise theory.
Who is the experimental group?
Group that receives the variable being tested
Who is the control group?
Group that does not receive the variant being tested.
What is the practice effect?
A natural improvement without the actual help of the variant being tested.
What is the confounding variable
A factor other than the one being studied that can have an effect on the results
What is the placebo effect? What can be the solution?
Expectations that participants have might affect could affect the results. Instead, experimenter can give a mock treatment so neither group knows if they are control or experimental group
Experiment Bias. Solution?
Actions made by the experimenter that could affect the results by accident. So, it’s better that the experimenter doesn’t know which group the participants belong to.
Why is average not very reliable
It is very susceptible to outliers( a low result can change the whole result)
Median
center value in a data set when it’s arranged numerically
What is type 1 error
Believing a difference when it doesn’t exist
What is type 2 error
Conclude there is no difference even though there is.
Definition of correlation
Measures the strength of a relationship between two variables
Correlation coefficient
number between -1 and +1 indicating the strength and direction of the correlation
What does it men when the p-value is greater than 0.05?
The results are not significant, meaning that there is a greater than 5% probability that the results are due to chance
What is a within participant design?
Participants complete both control and experimental manipulations
In between participants
Participants do not typically complete both manipulations (control and experimental)
What happens in double-blind experiments?
Experimenters don’t know who is in experimental group or control group and participants don’t know either
Blind experiments
Experimenters know who is in an experiment or control condition, but participants don’t
T or F: Direct observation is an accurate interpretation of people’s behaviours and intentions
False: Direct observation studies are prone to the subjectivity and interpretation of the experimenter
Random assignment
minimizes pre-existing differences between the groups, allowing us to compare these groups and ensure that the independent variable was responsible for any change in the dependent variable between groups
Random sampling
Method that allows generalization of the whole population
Difference between theory and hypothesis
A theory is a general set of ideas bout how the world works. A hypothesis makes specific predictions about a phenomenon. A hypothesis is a testable testable statement that is guided by theories
Difference between theory and hypothesis
A theory is a general set of ideas bout how the world works. A hypothesis makes specific predictions about a phenomenon. A hypothesis is a testable testable statement that is guided by theories
Contingent relationship
Presentation of one stimulus reliably leads to the presentation of another (signal and event
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
automatically triggers a response in the absence of any learning
Unconditioned response( UR)
Response that occurs after stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Paired with US to produce a learned contingency
Conditioned Response( CR)
The response that occurs once the contingency between CS and US is learned
Acquisition
Process at which a contingency is learned
Extinction
Presenting the CR alone when CS no longer predicts the US. However, the contingency is not unlearned, it competes with the original one.
Spontaneous recovery
the sudden recovery of a conditional response following a rest period after extinction
Stimulus generalization
The process by which stimuli similar to the CS will elicit a CR
Stimulus discrimination
The fear response by the highest gradient remains intact, but the lower fears flattened.
CS+ and CS-
CS+ presence of stimuli and CS- absence of stimuli
Systematic desensitization
uses gradually exposure to fear to the fear stimulus to make the phobia disappear.
Sensitization
Increase in behavioural responding to a repeated stimulus
What are two non-associative learning?
habituation and sensitization
Two associative learning
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Operant learning
learn that a behaviour leads to a particular outcome
Ex: money into vending machine will give me candy
Homeostasis
Body always tries to stay normal so that it evens out. That’s why classical conditioning happens
Homeostasis
Body always tries to stay normal so that it evens out. That’s why classical conditioning happens
CNS stands for
Compensatory Responses
Drug addicts that take regular drugs and are used to it. Then they take the same doses and the overdose(enigmatic opiate overdose). Why?
The administration cues(environmental factors) are not present. The body is not ready even though it took that dose every single day.
Inhibition
Makes the original learned response (CS) less likely by introducing a learned inhibitory response
Presenting the CS+ and CS- simultaneously
Leads to an intermediate response
What is higher-order conditioning?
Two or more conditioned stimuli can elicit the same conditioned response; however the conditioned response produced by the original CS is more resistant to extinction
Compensatory response
A natural body response to maintain homeostasis (ex: sweating when hot)
Discrimination
Restricting the range of CSs that can elicit CR
Extinction
The loss of CR when CS no longer predicts CR. So CS is presented without US so the individual doesn’t expect CR/UR anymore
Systematic desensitization
A mechanism used to treat phobias, in which the individual is presented with gradual exposure to the feared Cs without exposure to US
Withdrawal
A group of symptoms occurring after a discontinuation of a medication or drug. Often happens when an individual is in the environment they previously took drugs.
Instrumental conditioning
involves explicit training to learn the contingency between the voluntary behaviours and their consequences
Law effect
Behaviours with positive consequences become stamped in and behaviours with negative consequences are stamped out
Reinforcer
Any stimulus that is presented after a response that impacts the frequency that the response is performed.
1.Reward training 2.punishment training 3.Omission training 4.escape training
- presentation of + reinforcement
- Presentation of - reinforcement
- Remove a + reinforcer
- Remove a - reinforcer
Chaining
a technique used to develop a sequence of behaviours. Each behaviour is reinforced with the opportunity to perform the next behaviour in a sequence. (ex; learning the alphabet)
Shaping by successive approximation
small behaviours that lead to the final complex behaviours. Each little behaviour can be reinforced. (reinforcement in the basis of improvement)
SD/S+
when the contingent relationship is valid
S&/S-
When contingent relationship is not valid
Partial reinforcement
A schedule in which a form of reinforcement is not presented every time a particular behaviour is performed
Ratio reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is provided once a predetermined number of responses has been provided
Interval schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is provided once some amount of time has passed since the last response was reinforced
what is fixed ratio?
Instrumental schedule where reinforcement is delivered after a constant number of responses
Fixed interval
Instrumental schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered after a constant period of time
Variable ratio
Instrumental schedule of reinforcement where reinforcement is delivered after some variable number of responses around a characteristic mean
Variable interval
schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after some variable period of time around a characteristic mean
Continuous reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement always follows a particular behaviour.
What are the two assumptions psychologists make about intelligence?
- ability to perform cognitive tasks
- The capacity to learn from experience adapt
Deductive reasoning
From ideas and general info to specific conclusions
Inductive reasoning
moving from specific facts to broader theories
Functional fixedness
a bias limiting views to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used
Reliability
measures the extend to which repeated testing give consistent results
Validity
a valid test actually measures the trait it is supposed to be measuring
Describe strong role of genetics in intelligence
- Twins: correlation between IQ’sis +0.8
- Fraternal: +0.6
The way we grow up is also an important factor
Weschler scales
Scales standardized to produce an intelligence quotient for every individual. IQ
Flynn effect
The observation that raw IQ scores have been on the rise since 1932
What are the 4 stages that Piaget proposed of cognitive development in children
- Sensorimotor stage( until 2nd birthday)
- Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
- Concrete operational stage (7-12 years)
- Formal operational stage( after 12 years)
What is the sensorimotor stage?
until 2nd birthday. Child realizes
Object permanence: objects continue to exist even when you don’t see them anymore
Preoperational stage
- 2-7 years
- Egocentrism, Seriation, Reversible relationships, Conservation( ex: fluid conservation)
Concrete operational stage
- 7 to 12 years old
- struggles with abstract thinking and reasoning
Formal operational stage
Can understand more theorical world (book)
Confirmation bias
Tendency to seek out information that supports our hypothesis
Availability heuristic
Tendency to make decisions based on the information that is most quickly available to us.
Representativeness heuristic
Tendency to assume that what we are seeing is representative of the larger category we have on our minds.
