Midterm One Flashcards
Comparative anatomy
study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary trends
palpation
physical examination by touching
auscultation
listening with stethoscope
percussion
tapping with fingers
gross anatomy
visible with naked eye
histology
examination of cells with microscope
physiology
the study of function
anatomy
the study of form
inductive method
First described by Francis Bacon. making observations until capable of drawing generalizations and making predictions.
hypothetico-deductive method
ask a question and formulate a hypothesis
Anatomy and physiology are products of which respective methods?
inductive and hypothetic-deductive
experimental design
sample size, control and treatment groups (placebo), experimenter bias (double blind), stats
scientific fact
information that can be independently verified by any trained person
law of nature
description of the way matter and energy behave resulting from inductive reasoning and repeated observations
theory
summary of conclusions drawn from observable facts - explanations and predictions
evolution
change in genetic composition of a population of organisms
theory of natural selection
some individuals have hereditary advantages (adaptations) that let them reproduce more, pass these onto their offspring to change the genetic population (evolution)
selection pressures
forces that favor some individuals over others: climate, disease
examples of anatomical variation
missing organs, more or less organs, variation in organ location
situs inversus
major visceral organs are reversed in position
dextrocardia
heart points toward right side of body
situs perversus
mal position of ANY organ
reference man
22 yo, 154 lbs, light physical activity, 2800 kcal/day
reference woman
22 yo, 128 lbs, light physical activity, 2000kcal/day
who coined the term homeostasis
Walter Cannon - indicated stable internal environment
dynamic equilbrium
fluctuates within a range around a certain set point
loss of homeostatic control?
illness or death
external stimuli
intense heat, cold, hypoxia
internal stimuli
psychological stresses, exercise
blood gas level control
exercise increases CO2 levels in blood, sensory receptors detect change, nervous system increases HR and breathing rate to remove excess CO2, adrenal gland releases epi to increase HR and breathing rates
blood temperature control
vasodilation when hot, vasoconstriction when cold
negative feedback examples
blood pressure, blood sugar, pH, osmotic concentration
receptor and example
structure that senses change. stretch receptors in heart and large blood vessels send info of an elevated BP to inegrator
integrator and example
control center. cardiac center in brainstem that signals heart to slow
effector and example
structures that carry out commands of control center. heart slows and BP decreases, sweating begins and evaporation cools body
positive feedback
physiological change that leads to an even greater change in the same direction (self-amplifying). way to produce rapid changes
positive feedback examples
birth.
1. head of fetus pushes against cervix
2. nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain
3. brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin
4. oxytocin carried in bloodstream to uterus
5. oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus towards cervix
blood clotting, protein digestion, generation of nerve signals
eponyms
structures named after people
nomina anatomica
rejected all eponyms and gave each structure a unique Latin name to be used worldwide
Terminologia Anatomica
codified in 1998
atomic number
number of protons
atomic mass
protons + neutrons
valence electrons
outermost shell, interact with other atoms, determine chemical behavior, octet rule
anion
negatively charged
catio
positively charged
electrolytes
salts that ionize water, form solutions capable of conducting electricity
most abundant electrolytes in body?
sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and carbonate
what are electrolytes used for?
nerve and muscle function. IMbalance can lead to muscle cramps, brittle bones or coman and death
free radical
a particle with an odd number of electrons (ex. superoxide anion ) O2-
what are free radicals produced by?
metabolic reactions, radiation, chemicals
what do free radicals do to the body?
causes tissue damage by triggering chain reactions that destroy molecules
antioxidants
neutralize free radicals (superoxide dismutase enzyme, vitamin E, C, carotenoids
ionic bond
relatively weak attraction between anion and cation, easily disrupted by water
covalent bond
sharing of one or more electron pairs between nuclei
nonpolar covalent
electrons equally distributed between two nuclei. Strongest type of chemical bond
polar covalent
electrons unequally distributed between nuclei resulting in slightly positive and slightly negative ends
hydrogen bond
weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Used in folding of molecules, between nucleotides in DNA
solvency
the ability to dissolve matter
hydrophilic
charged substances that dissolve easily in water
hydrophobic
neutral substances that do not easily dissolve in water
water
universal solvent, important for metabolic reactions and transport of substances
polarity of water
uneven sharing of valence e-; partial negative near O and partial positive near H atoms
why does polarity benefit water?
makes it a good solvent for ionic or polar substances, gives water molecules cohesion and allows water to moderate temperature changes
water as a solvent
polar covalent bonds, can interact with 4 or more neighboring ions/molecules
hydrolysis reaction
water added to a large molecule to split it up ex. digestion of food
dehydration reaction
two small molecules brought together to synthesize larger molecule releasing water (peptide synthesis)
What does it mean for water to have a high heat capacity?
can absorb a lot of heat with only a small increase in its own temperature due to the the large number of H bonds in water (these bonds are broken instead of raising temperature)
heat of vaporization for water
also high - evaporation of water from the skin removes large amount of heat
cohesion
hydrogen bonds linking nearby water molecules
what does cohesion result in?
high surface tension, difficult to break the surface of liquid
respiratory problems caused by waters cohesive property
air sacs of lungs are more difficult to inflate
how does water act as a lubricant in the body?
mucus in respiratory and digestive systems, synovial fluid in joints, serous fluids in chest and abdominal cavities
acid
proton donor
base
proton acceptor
pH
concentration of H+ ions in a solution, -log[H+]
what are reaction rates affected by?
concentration, temperature and catalysts
how does concentration affect reaction rate?
more concentrated = more collisions = faster rxn
how does temperature affect reaction rate?
higher temperature = greater collision force = faster rxn
how do catalysts affect reaction rate?
speed up reactions without permanent change to itself, lower activation energy
organic molecules
carbon compounds and functional groups (lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleotides and nuclei acids)
common molecules with hydroxyl groups
sugars, alcohols
common molecules with methyl groups
fats, oils, steroids, amino acids
common molecules with carboxyl groups
amino acids, sugars, proteins
common molecules with amino groups
amino acids, proteins
common molecules with phosphate group
nucleic acids, ATP
dehydration synthesis
monomers bond together to form a polymer with the removal of a water. usually anabolic and endergonic
hydrolysis
splitting of polymer by the addition of a water molecule; catabolic and usually exergonic
oxidation
molecule releases electrons and energy, often as H atoms
reduction
molecule accepts electrons and gains chemical energy
carbohydrates
hydrophilic organic molecule. (CH2O)n act as a form of energy
monosaccharides
simplest carbohydrates
what are the three major monosaccharides?
glucose, galactose and fructose
disaccharides
pairs of monosaccharides
three major disaccharides?
sucrose, lactose, maltose
sucrose
fructose and glucose
lactose
galactose and glucose
fructose
glucose and glucose
polysaccharides
starch, cellulose and glycogen
starch
produced by plants is digested by amylase
cellulose
gives structure to plants, fiber to our diet (we can’t break it down)
glycogen
energy storage polysaccharides, synthesized by liver after meal
where are glycolipids found?
external surface of cell membrane
where are glycoproteins found?
external surface of cell membrane, mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts
where are proteoglycans found?
carbohydrate component domain, cell adhesion, gelatinous filler of tissues and lubricates joints
lipids
hydrophobic organic molecule. less oxidized that carbs, have more calories per fram
fatty acids
chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms between a carboxyl group and a methyl group
saturated
no double bonds
unsaturated
double bonds
triglyceride synthesis
three fatty acids bonded to glycerol by dehydration synthesis. Become a neutral fat
lipase
hydrolyzes fats
phospholipids
amphiphilic character with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
eicosanoid and example
derived by arachidonic acid (a fatty acid). Prostaglandins (inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, control of blood vessel diameter)
what is the function of eicosanoids?
chemical signals between cells
steroids
derived from cholesterol
functions of steroids?
proper nervous system function and important component for cell membrane fluidity
proteins
polymer of amino acids
amino acids
determine structure and function of proteins
primary structure
amino acid sequence
secondary structure
a-helices and beta-pleated sheets held together by H bonds
tertiary structure
interaction of large segments to each other and surrounding water (hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions) - disulfide bridges and ionic bridges also
quaternary structure
two or more separate polypeptide chains interacting
conjugated protein
contain a non-amino acid moiety called a prosthetic group
hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains, each chain has a complex iron ring with a heme moiety
protein conformation
overall 3D shape is crucial to function, they have an ability to change this to carry out their function
denaturation
drastic conformational change that destroys protein function
functions of proteins
structure, communication, membrane transport, catalysis, recognition and protection, movement and cell adhesion
what are some structural proteins?
collagen and keratin
ligand
molecule that reversibly binds to a protein
how do proteins aid in membrane transport?
can form channels and act as carriers
what proteins are involved in recognition and protection?
glycoprotein antigens, antibodies and clotting proteins
enzymes
function as biological catalysts by lowering activation energy, also help to properly orient colliding molecules
enzyme naming convention
now named with their substrate with -ase as suffix
enzymes are…
highly specific, very efficient and under nuclear control
active sute
area on enzyme that attracts and binds a substrate
enzyme-substrate complex
temporarily changes a substrates conformation, promoting reactions to occur
enzyme-substrate specificity
active site is specific for a particular substrate
effects of temperature and pH on enzymes
change reaction rate by altering enzyme shape
cofactors
nonprotein partners that can bind and change enzyme shape creating an active site; often necessary
coenzymes
organic cofactors from water soluble vitamins
what is the cofactor for coenzyme A?
pantothenic acid (coenzyme A synthesizes triglycerides and ATP
what is the cofactor for NAD+ and FAD?
niacin in NAD+ and riboflavin (B2) in FAD
galactosemia
inherited disorder, baby lacks digestive enzyme, galactose accumulates in blood causing anorexia (body thinks it is full, but actually none of this is being turned into useful glucose because the enzyme is not there), treatment is elimination of milk from the diet
