Midterm 1 Flashcards
Why is it beneficial to have glucose enter the body in a different form?
Better able to regulate blood glucose levels, not as sharp a spike in glucose
Sucrose
Fructose and glucose
Lactose
Glucose and galactose
Maltose
Glucose and glucose
Examples of polysaccharides
Starch, cellulose, glycogen
Glycolipids
External surface of cell membrane
Glycoproteins
External surface of cell membrane and mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts
Proteoglycans
Cell adhesion, gelatinous filler of tissue and lubricates joints
How does aspirin work?
Blocks thrombosis II which is a prostaglandin.
Prostaglandins
Function in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, control of blood vessels
Dipeptide synthesis
Dehydration reaction
Primary structure
Covalent peptide bonds
Secondary structure
Hydrogen bonding`
Tertiary
Hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions
Galactosemia
Baby lacks enzyme that breaks galactose into glucose causing galactose to accumulate in the blood.
Why don’t we use proteins for energy?
Body can’t distinguish ingested proteins from proteins naturally in body and therefore would deplete the proteins in our muscles including our heart
Squamous
Good at diffusion
Discoid
Good at diffusion
Cuboidal
Secretion or absorption
Columnar
Secretion or absorption; better than cuboidal because they have microvilli to increase surface area to volume ratio
Why do babies have a higher metabolic rate?
Much larger surface area to volume ratio so they dissipate heat quicker than adults and therefore need to increase metabolic rate to compensate
Hepatocytes
Detoxification and lipid synthesis
Neurons
Send signals via neurotransmitters
How does cholesterol integrate into the cell membrane?
Binds fatty acid tails together to make membrane more rigid and forms hydrogen bonds with neighboring phospholipid heads
More or less cholesterol at high temperature?
More
why can small non-polar molecules cross the cell membrane?
Phosphate heads are tinier than fatty acid tails and can fit through the spaces left to get to the hydrophobic portion
Structure and function of glycocalyx?
Integral glycoproteins have sugar portion facing the extracellular fluid. Protects cell from being digested, creates a stickiness to hold it to other cells or create a slippery surface
Gradients in the ell
More sodium outside than inside, more potassium inside than out.
More oxygen outside of cell, more carbon dioxide inside a cell
Diffusion
Random mixing of particles in a solution as a result of the particles kinetic energy
What type of diffusion is glucose transport and how does it work?
Facilitated diffusion. Glucose binds to the transporter protein changing it’s shape and allows glucose to flow down its concentration gradient. Once inside the cell glucose is transformed by a kinase into glucose-6-phosphate so that the gradient is maintained
What is the mechanism of action for digitalis?
Inhibits the sodium/potassium pump —> increase in intracellular Na+ —> decrease in Na/Ca antiporter activity —> increase intracellular Ca —> HR decreases and contractile force increases
Isotonic
Water concentration same inside and outside; no net movement
Hypotonic
More water outside the cell than inside, water flows in causing hemolysis
Hypertonic
More water inside cell, water flows out causing crenation
What is the function of the rough ER?
Synthesize proteins that are going to exported out of the cell
What is the function of the smooth ER?
Lipid production and detoxification
What is the function of the golgi?
Process and package materials for export; post-translation modifications and exocytosis
What happens when you are without oxygen for 4 minute?
Body can’t produce enough ATP to hold lysosomes in place and they open and lyse everything
Mechanism of Tay-Sachs disorder
Missing a single lysosomal enzyme causing an accumulation of glycolipids in nerve cells leading to their loss of function
Mechanism of cystic fibrosis (2)?
Chloride ion pump not secreted from the golgi properly or the rough ER does not do correct post translational modifications causing an imbalance in fluid and ion transport
FUnction of peroxisomes
Oxidizes toxic substances;
Alcohol —> acetaldehyde
Methanol —> formaldehyde
Function of mitochondria
Producer ATP
Hyperplasia
Increase number of cell divisions
Epithelial
Lines hollow organs, cavities and ducts; has a free surface
Connective tissue
Majority of tissue is non-living matrix, the cells are only a small portion; supports and binds structures together
Muscular tissue
Cells shorten in length to produce movement
Nervous tissue
Conduct electrical signals; high metabolic rate and long life
Main differences between different tissue types
Function, matrix composition, and amount of space occupied by cell versus matrix
Endoderm
Mucus lining GI and respiratory tract and digestive glands
Ectoderm
Epidermis and nervous system
Mesoderm
Mesenchyme that gives rise to muscle, bone, blood and other connective tissue
General features of epithelial tissue
Highly cellular, cells sit on basement membrane, apical free surface, avascular
Simple squamous and where they are found
Thin flat cells in a single layer; lining of blood vessels, body cavities, capillaries, alveoli of lungs
Stratified squamous and locations
Several layers thick; either in skin (keratinized) or mouth/vagina (non keratinized)
Simple cuboidal cells and location
Single layer of cube-shaped cells; kidney tubules and glandular regions
Stratified cuboidal and locations
Rare - found near sweat gland ducts and male urethra
Nonciliated simple columnar and location
Single layer rectangular cells; GI tract
Ciliated simple columnar and location
Single layer rectangular cells with cilia; Fallopian tubes only anywhere else is a transition tissue
Stratified columnar and location
Multilayered; only found in transition states except in male urethra or large ducts
Pseudostratified columnar
Single cell layer, all cells attached to basement membrane; some just don’t make it to apical surface. Respiratory system, male urethra and epididymis
Transitional epithelium and location
Bladder and ureters; hollow organs that expand from within
Fibroblasts
Produce fibers and ground substance
macrophages
Phagocytize foreign materials and activate immune system
Neutrophils
Wander in search of bacteria
Plasma cells
Synthesize antibodies
Mast cells
Release heparin, histamine and serotonin
Adipocytes
Store triglycerides
Function of heparin
Inhibits clotting
Function of histamine
Dilates blood vessels; acts immediately causing blood pressure and velocity decrease. Capillary permeability increases
Function of serotonin
A vasodilator that acts slower than histamine; aids to push fluid out into lymphatic system and whatever else is in the blood
Collagen
Tough fibers found in tendons, ligaments and dermis
Reticular fibers
Thin collagen fibers coated with glycoproteins that form framework for certain organs
Elastic fibers
Thin branching fibers made of elastin that stretch and recoil (skin,arteries and lungs)
Mechanism of Marfan syndrome
Abnormal development of elastin fibers; life threatening weakening of aorta
Glycosaminoglycans
Chondroitin sulfate; regulate water and electrolyte balance
Proteoglycans
Embedded in plasma membrane creating strong bonds; hyaluronic acid
Adhesive glyocproteins
Protein-carbohydrate complexes that bind plasma membrane to collagen or proteoglycans OUTSIDE the cell
Types of loose connective tissue
Areolar tissue, reticular tissue and adipose tissue
Brown fat and its activation
Mainly found in infants and has more blood vessels and mitochondria because it is responsible for heat generation; disrupts electron transport chain to raise body temperature quickly
Dense connective tissue types
Dense regular and dense irregular
Hyaline cartilage function
support airway and eases joint movements; has high compression strength, relatively low tension strength and very low torsion strength
Elastic cartilage in body
External ear and epiglottis; flexible and elastic support
Fibrocartilage in body
Resists compression and absorbs shock in some joints; pubic symphysis, meniscus and intervertebral discs
Interstitial growth
Chondrocytes divide and form new matrix; occurs in childhood
Appositional growth
Chondroblasts sercrete matrix onto surface
Structure of compact bone
Osteon - lamellae of mineralized matrix; osteocytes reside in lacunae in between lamellae; caniculi connect cell to cell
Organic matrix of compact bone
Collagen; runs oblique to longitudinal axis of the bone and each concentric layer alternates
Inorganic matrix of compact bone
Hydroxyapatite
systemic lupus erythematosus
Chronic inflammation of connective tissue; life-threatening if inflammation occurs in major organs
Skeletal muscle features
Striated; voluntary; multi-nucleated; need action potential for contraction
Cardiac muscle features
Branched cylinder cells with one nucleus, involuntary, striated, attached by desmosomes and communicate via intercalated discs; contracts independent of outside
Smooth muscle features
Mono-uncleared, involuntary and nonstriated
Tight junctions
Watertight seal between cells; common between cells in GI and bladder
Adherens junction
Holds epithelial cells together; found in low stress places
Desmosomes
Found in places with lots of stress, such as cardiac muscle and skin. Intracellular intermediate filaments cross cytoplasm of cell
Hemidesmosomes
Connects cell to extracellular materials
Gap junctions
Space between plasma membrane of 2 cells for communication; heart and smooth muscle of gut
Endocrine glands
Hormones are secreted directly into bloodstream
Exocrine
Simple cuboidal — secrete products into duct
Simple glands
Sweat glands, unbranched
Compound glands
Have a branched duct
Acinar duct
Type of compound duct in which secretory cells for dilated sac instead of tube
Tubolacinar duct
Type of compound duct that secretes cells in both tube and sac
Which organs have both endocrine and exocrine function?
Liver, pancreas and gonads
Serous glands
Produce thin, watery secretions; sweat, milk, tears and digestive juices
Mucous glands
Produces mucin (a glycoproteins) that absorbs water to form mucus
Mixed glands
Both serous and mucous cells
Cytogenetic glands
Release whole cells (sperm and egg)
Merocrine/ecrine
Most common glands; cells release their products via exocytosis
Apocrine glands
Are really merocrine glands but have a confusing appearance; smelly sweat and milk
Holocrine glands
Oil gland - lipid based; whole cell die and rupture to release their products
Mucous membranes
Epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosae
Cutaneous membrane
External body surface, keratinized squamous epithelium resting on layer of connective tissue; protective function
Synovial membrane
Lines joints; secretes synovial fluid rich in hyaluronic acid
Serous membrane
Internal membrane made of simple squamous epithelium and areolar tissue that covers organs and walls of body cavities and produces serous fluid
Differentiation
Normal unspecialized tissue of embryo to specialized mature types
Metaplasia
Changing between mature tissue types
Hypertrophy
Enlargement of pre-existing cellsa
Neoplasia
Growth of a tumor through growth of abnormal tissue
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death in which cells shrink and are phagocytosis
Atrophy
Shrinkage from los of cell size/number
Necrosis
Pathological death of tissue
Regeneration
Replacement of tissue with original cell types
Which cell types can’t divide?/
Muscle and nervous tissue
Fibrosis
Replacing normal cell type with scar tissue (collagen)
Epidermis
Epithelial tissue only
Dermis
Layer of connective tissue, nerve and muscle
Subcutaneous (hypodermis)
Layer of adipose and areolar tissue; not a part of integumentary
Keratinocytes
Produce precursor of keratin
Merkel cell
Found in stratum basalt on top of tactile disc
Melanocytes
Produces melanin
Melanin function
Protected from UV radiation and found in stratum basale because that’s where mitosis happens
Langerhans cells
Dendritic cell of epidermis; antigen presenting cell
Stratum basale
Deepest layer; cells attached to each other and basement membrane via desmosomes and hemidesmosomes
Stratum spinosum
8-10 layers held together by desmosomes; melanin
Stratum granulosum
3-5 layers of flat dying cells; product lamellar granules
Stratum lucidum
Only found in thick skin; 3-5 layers of clear, flat and dead cells containing precursor of keratin
Stratum cornermen
25-30 layers of dead cells filled with keratin surrounded by lipids
Dermis
Connective tissue layer composed of collagen and elastic fibers, fibroblast, macrophage and fat cells
Reticular layer
Dense irregular connective tissue; strength, extensibility and elasticity
Papillary layer
Top 20%, capillaries and meissner’s corpuscles and free nerve endings
Hypodermis
More adipose; energy reservoir and thermal insulation
Hemoglobin and pigmentation
Visible through dermal collagen fibers giving red tint to skin
Carotene in pigmentation
Concentrated in stratum corneum and subQ fat; comes from vitamin A
Cyanosis
Blueness due to lack of oxygen in blood
Erythema
Redness due to dilated cutaneous vessels
Jaundice
Yellowing of skin and sclera due to bilirubin buildup
Bronzing
Golden-brown color of Addison’s disease (deficiency of glucocorticoid hormone so not enough cortisol)
Pallor
Pale color from lack of blood flow
Albinism
Genetic lack of melanin
Hematoma
Bruise, broken vessels under skin
Timing of bruise colors
Purple —> green —> yellow
Hemangioma
Benign tumors of dermal blood capillaries
Freckles and moles
Aggregation of melanocytes
Friction ridges
Finger prints
Vitiligo
Autoimmune loss of melanocytes in areas of the skin producing white patches
Shaft of hair
Visible portion of the hair
Root of hair
Portion below surface
Arrector pili
Goosebumps; smooth muscle that makes our hair stand up on end with cold or fear
Hair root plexus
Detects hair movement
Terminal hair
Coarse, long, pigmented hair of scalp
Vellus hair
Fine, unpigmented hair of children and women
Lanugo hair
Fine, unpigmented fetal hair
Eumelanin
Brown and black hair
Pheomelanin
Blonde hair, sulfur-containing
Trichosiderin
Iron containing pigment in red hair
Gray hair
Mixture of white and pigmented hairs
White air
Air in medulla rather than matrix and lack of pigment in cortex
