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BIO 94 > Midterm 3 (#17, 18, 19) > Flashcards

Midterm 3 (#17, 18, 19) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are lophotrochozoans?

A

a clade; mollusks

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2
Q

What are ecdysozoans?

A

a clade; arthropods, etc.

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3
Q

What is the anatomy of a mollusk?

A

muscular foot, visceral mass 1, visceral mass 2, radula, mantle

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4
Q

(In mollusks) What is the muscular foot?

A

located at the base of an animal, used for movement

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5
Q

How did the muscular foot evolve in bivalves?

A

foot modified as digging appendage

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6
Q

How did the muscular foot evolve in cephalopods?

A

food modified to form tentacles for crawling and grasping

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7
Q

How is the muscular foot used for movement in snails and chitons?

A

works as a hydrostatic skeleton (called muscular hydrostat)

waves of muscle contractions sweep backward or forward allowing individuals to crawl along surface

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8
Q

(In mollusks) What is the visceral mass 1?

A

region containing main internal organs and external gill

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9
Q

What is a visceral mass?

A

region in all mollusks where organs and surrounding fluids are located

**separate from muscular foot

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10
Q

The separation of the __________ ______ from __________ _______ may have enabled (less/greater) diversification of both features across the phyulm.

A

muscular foot, visceral mass
greater

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11
Q

(In mollusks) What is the visceral mass 2?

A

separates internal organs from the hydrostatic skeleton

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12
Q

(In mollusks) What is the coelom?

A

highly reduced in most mollusks
functioning mostly in reproduction and excretion of wastes

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13
Q

What is the hemocoel? How is it different from the colem?

A

body cavity organs occupy; organs are bathed in body fluids in open circulatory system

difference:
**NOT lined in mesoderm
also distinct origin

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14
Q

The ________ is unique to mollusks.

A

radula

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15
Q

The __________ end of the visceral mass has the _______.

A

anterior, radula

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16
Q

What is the radula?

A

feeding structure
functions like a rasp or file; moves back and forth over food source

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17
Q

Radula were lost in…? What were they replaced with?

A

bivalves; they now acquire food by suspension feeding

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18
Q

Radula probably evolved _______ in molluscan evolution.

A

early

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19
Q

(In mollusks) What is the mantle?

A

outgrowth of body wall that covers visceral mass; creates mantle cavity

secretes shell made of calcium carbonate

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20
Q

What are shells made of?

A

calcium carbonate

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21
Q

What are the different parts of a shell called? How many do some mollusk species have?

A

valves

1, 2, or 8, or no shell at all!

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22
Q

In bivalves, the protective shell is _______ and ________.

A

hinged; closes

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23
Q

In terrestrial snails, what is the additional function of the mantle?

A

forms an internal lung

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24
Q

In bivalves, what is the additional function of the mantle?

A

lined with muscle and forms tubes call siphons

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25
Q

In cephalopods, what is the additional function of the mantle?

A

forms siphon that functions in jet propulsion

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26
Q

How does jet propulsion work? (HINT: mantle)

A
  1. cavity enclosed by mantle fills with water
  2. water is forced out through siphon; animal moves
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27
Q

What is an arthropod?

A

most important phylum within Ecdysozoa

most abundant animals observed in both aquatic and terrestrial environments

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28
Q

What are the 4 major TRADITIONAL lineages of arthropods? Out of these 4, which is the most diverse and abundant?

What has changed?

A
  1. chelicerata
  2. myriapoda
  3. crustacea
  4. insects (MOST DIVERSE AND ABUNDANT)

***NOW: insects are now considered a CLADE; a part of the crustacean lineage

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29
Q

What are examples of chelicerata?

A

spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites

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30
Q

What are examples of myriapoda?

A

millipedes, centipedes

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31
Q

What are examples of crustacea?

A

shrimp, lobsters, crabs

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32
Q

(Body plan) Arthropods are defined by three key features:

A
  1. segments (tagmata)
  2. jointed appendages and exoskeleton
  3. segment specialization
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33
Q

What are the tagmata for insects? Spiders?

A

Insects:
1. heard
2. thorax
3. abdomen

Spiders:
1. cephalothorax
2. abdomen

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34
Q

(In arthropods) What do jointed appendages and an exoskeleton allow for? What do these features have?

A

modular and flexible changes (feeding, movement, etc.)

has chitan and calcium carbonate

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35
Q

(In arthropods) What is segment specialization? How are they acquired?

A

segments have specific functions

acquired through Hox genes (gene regulation)

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36
Q

_____ were the first animals to achieve powered flight. What did this enable them to do?

A

insects
enabled them to escape predators and search for new food resources

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37
Q

Wings have evolved (once/many times). What is the issue with evidence though?

A

ONCE

no fossil of transitional wings structures discovered

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38
Q

Wings (did/did not) evolve from jointed limbs of anthropods.

A

DID NOT

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39
Q

How do wings occur on an insect?

A

occur as unjointed extensions of dorsal cuticle on 2nd and 3rd segments of thorax

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40
Q

Wings have been secondarily ______ and/or ______ many times.

A

lost; modified

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41
Q

What are the two types of metamorphosis? (Include their fancy names!!)

A
  1. incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous)
  2. complete metamorphosis (holometabolous)
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42
Q

What is incomplete metamorphosis?

A

form of direct development

NYMPHS (juveniles who are smaller versions of adults)

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43
Q

What is complete metamorphosis?

A

form of indirect development
***DISTINCT larval stage

pupa (secrete protective case that larvae is in) –> new ADULT form

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44
Q

___________ metamorphosis is 10 times more common than ___________ metamorphosis.

A

complete, incomplete

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45
Q

What are the two reasons why complete metamorphosis is more common? Explain each concept.

A
  1. feeding efficiency: adults and juveniles do not compete with each other for resources
  2. functional specialization: different forms = specialization; can lead to higher efficiency in feeding and reproduction –> higher fitness
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46
Q

Why are worms not a good phylogenetic grouping?

A

distantly related organisms are still considered “worms”

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47
Q

Flatworms and acoelomates don’t have a _________.

A

coelom

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48
Q

(In a flatworm) What are the advantages and disadvantages of a flatten body?

A

flatten body is an adaption:

provides large surface area to volume ratio (allows for gas exchange and nutrients to better absorb)

requires flatworms to live in an aquatic or moist environment (because flatten bodies risk being dried out)

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49
Q

All flatworms except ________ are __________.

A

Turbellaria, parasites

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50
Q

All flatworms except _________ have ________ ___________ _________.

A

tapeworms, blind digestive tracts

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51
Q

What are annelids?

A

lophotrochozoan worms
**have a coelom

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52
Q

What are nematodes?

A

roundworms; unsegmented
tube-within-a-tube body plan
no appendages
elastic cuticle that is molted

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53
Q

What are two examples of ecdysozoans?

A

velvet worms, water bears

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54
Q

What are deuterostomes? What are the three phyla?

A

anus forms first, followed by mouth

3 groups:
1. hemichordates
2. echinoderms
3. chordates

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55
Q

What are chordates? What are major groups?

A

plyum

cephalochordates, urochordates, and VERTEBRATES!!

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56
Q

What are examples of echinodermata?

A

sea stars, sea urchins

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57
Q

What are examples of hemichordata?

A

acorn worms, pterobranchs

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58
Q

What are examples of chordata?

A

lancelets, tunicates, vertebrates (animals with backbones… such as fish, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, etc.)

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59
Q

Deuterstomes have (high/low) diversity in adult body plans, feeding methods, modes of locomotion, and reproductive strategies.

A

HIGH

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60
Q

What are inverebrates?

A

animals that don’t have a backbone

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61
Q

In deuterostomes, (vertebrates/invertebrates) dominate.

A

VERTEBRATES

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62
Q

What are echinoderms?

A

“spiny-skins” ; named for spines or spikes observed in many species

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63
Q

All echinoderms are ________ ________.

A

marine animals

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64
Q

Echinoderms are a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

monophyletic

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65
Q

What are the three main synapomorphies of echinoderms?

A
  1. radial symmetry in adults; biradial symmetry in larvae
  2. endoskeleton (made of calcium carbonate)
  3. water vascular system and tube feet
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66
Q

(In echinoderms) What is the water vascular system?

A

series of branching, fluidd-filled tubes and chambers

sea water flows in and out of system

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67
Q

(In echinoderms) What are tube feet? What are the parts? (HINT: 2)

A

**IMPORTANT part of the water vascular system

elongated, fluid-filled appendages

PARTS:
1. ampulla (inside of the body)
2. tube-like podium (projecting on the outside)

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68
Q

(In echinoderms) What is the endoskeleton?

A

hard, protective, and supportive structure located inside thin layer of epidermal tissue

forms during development through secretion of calcium carbonate (plates inside skin)

69
Q

The plates of the endoskeleton remain ________ and ________. Depending on conditions, the tissue that connects the plates could be ___________ _________ or _____________.

A

independent, flexible

reversibly stiff, flexible

70
Q

All deuterostomes as larvae are __________ ____________.

A

bilaterally symmetric

71
Q

Radially symmetric animals do not have ______.

A

heads

72
Q

(In echinoderms) Adults have ___________ ________ (which could also be called __________ __________ _________).

A

pentaradial symmetry
five-sided radial symmetry

73
Q

When did pentaradial symmetry originate?

A

early in echinoderm evolution

74
Q

___________ are considered the sister group to vertebrates—not the __________ contrary to pervious belief.

A

urochordates

cephalochordates

75
Q

The most species-rich and ecologically diverse vertebrates are the _______-________ ________ and ____________.

A

ray-finned fish and tetrapods

76
Q

What are ray-finned fish? Provide examples.

A

fish whose fins are supported by bony rods

goldfish, tuna, salmon

77
Q

What are tetrapods?

A

reptiles, amphibians, and mammals

78
Q

What are the vertebrate synapomorphies? (HINT: 2)

A

cartilage, bone

79
Q

What are the functions of cartilage? (HINT: 3)

A
  1. strong, flexible tissue
  2. consists of scattered cells in gel-like matrix of polysaccharides and protein fibers
  3. found throughout body
80
Q

What is bone?

A

dense tissue of cells and blood vessels encased in matrix of calcium phosphate

81
Q

What were the earliest vertebrates? When did they date back to?

A

jawless fish
date back to Cambrian explosion

82
Q

What are jawless fish?

A

streamlines, fishlike bodies, gills, notochord, post-anal tail, and paired eyes

lived in ocean

83
Q

(In jawless fish) What is the cranium made of?

A

cartilage

84
Q

(In jawless fish) What was the notochord reinforced with?

A

series of cartilaginous reinforcements to notochord

85
Q

(In jawless fish) Specialized ________ ________ ____ were responsible for…? These cells are also ___________ for vertebrates.

A

neural crest cells

responsible for: brain, cranium, sensory cell formation

synapomorphies

86
Q

Jawed fish is a ______, which includes what lineages? (HINT: 4)

A

grade

  1. Cartilaginous fish
  2. Ray-finned fish
  3. Coelacanths
  4. Lungfish
87
Q

What is an evolutionary grade?

A

group of species untied by similar morphological or physiological traits, that has given rise to another group that has major differences from the ancestral condition, and is thus not considered part of the ancestral group

TLDR: group of similar traits in some organisms but those traits are too different from the ancestral group so they’re their own group

88
Q

The _____ was a major event in the evolution of vertebrates from transitioning to land.

A

limb

89
Q

What are the three major lineages of living tetrapods?

A
  1. amphibia
  2. mammalia
  3. reptilia
90
Q

Who were the first tetrapods to live on land?

A

amphibians

91
Q

What are amphibians?

A

“both-sides-living”
- adults feed on land, lay eggs in water
-undergo metamorphosis from aquatic larva to terrestrial or semi-terrestrial adult

92
Q

(In amphibians) ______ ________ occurs across their moist mucus covered skin.

A

gas exchange

93
Q

Amphibia is a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

monophyletic

94
Q

What are amniota?

A

lineage including all tetrapods other than amphibians

named for synapomorphy: amniotic egg

95
Q

Amniotic eggs have a ________ _______ that reduces the rate of _______.

A

protective covering; drying

96
Q

What animals lay amniotic eggs? Where do they lay them?

A

reptiles (including birds) and the few mammals that do lay eggs

lay them outside of water

97
Q

Amniotic eggs have ____ membranes. Name each one.

A

3

  1. embryo (itself, called the amnion)
  2. yolk (provided by the mother, called the yolk sac)
  3. waste (from the embryo, called allantois)
98
Q

Amniotic eggs are surrounded by a ______.

A

shell

99
Q

Reptiles are a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

monophyletic

100
Q

What are reptiles? What are the four major lineages?

A

second major living lineage of amniotes besides mammals

  1. lizards and snakes
  2. turtles
  3. crocodiles and alligators
  4. birds

***is a clade

101
Q

Fish are a ______.

A

grade

102
Q

What were adaptations of reptilia for life on land? (HINT: 4)

A
  1. skin is watertight by layer of scales of keratin
  2. breathe air through well-developed lungs
  3. lay shelled, amniotic eggs
  4. many are ectotherms (“outside-heated”)
103
Q

What are scales made of?

A

keratin

104
Q

What are ectotherms?

A

“outside-heated” ; do not use internally generated heat to regulate their body temperature

105
Q

What are endotherms?

A

“warm-blooded” ; use internally generated heat

106
Q

Crocodiles are ______.

A

ectothermic

107
Q

Birds are _______. This suggests…?

A

endothermic

suggests that birds evolved independently in birds and mammals

108
Q

While _______ are very closely related to dinosaurs, _______ ARE dinosaurs.

A

crocodilian, birds

109
Q

Dinosaurs are a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

monophyletic

110
Q

What did birds descend from?

A

dinosaurs that had feathers

111
Q

What are feathers? What are their functions?

A

outgrowth of the skin composed of keratin

provide insulation, used for display, and furnish the lift and steering required for flight

112
Q

When did mammals become widespread and ecologically diverse?

A

Jurassic period

…but they were still overshadowed by dinosaurs

113
Q

Many lineages of all animals died out during the…?

A

end-Cretaceous mass extinction

114
Q

After the mass extinction, mammal lineages underwent an ________ ________.

A

adaptive radiation

115
Q

What are mammals? What do all mammals have?

A

monophyletic group of amniotes named for mammary glands (produce milk)

lactation and fur

116
Q

What are mammary glands? What are their functions?

A

glands that produce milk; unique to mammals

milk nourishes developing young (called lactation)

117
Q

Mammals are the only vertebrates that have ________ ______ and ______. What do these allow for?

A

cheek muscles; lips

allows for suckling milk possible

118
Q

Mammals are _________. This allows them to…?

A

endotherms

maintain high body temperatures by oxidizing large amounts of food and generating larges amounts of heat

119
Q

(In mammals) The body is covered with layers of _____ or _____ made of _________.

A

hair, fur

keratin

120
Q

What are the three major groups of mammals?

A
  1. prototherians (monotremes)
  2. Methatherians (marsupials)
  3. Eutherians (placental mammals)
121
Q

What are prototherians/monotremes? Provide examples.

A

egg-laying mammals

platypus and 4 other echidna species

122
Q

What are methatherians/marsupials? Provide examples.

A

pouch-bearing mammals

opossums, kangaroos, wallabys, etc.

123
Q

What are eutherians/placental mammals?

A

well-developed placenta and extended pregnancy

US! (everything else)

124
Q

What is the placenta?

A

organ combining maternal and embryonic tissues

feeds and cleans the embryo/fetus

125
Q

The placenta is rich in _____ _____. Why?

A

blood vessels

facilitates flow of O2 and nutrients from mother to developing embryo and also removes wastes (e.g. nitrogen, CO2) from embyro

126
Q

After _______, the embryo emerges from the mother’s body.

A

gestation

127
Q

The embryo contributes to the placenta. What parts are they? What do they do? (HINT: 2)

A

allantois and chorion

diffusion of gases, nutrients, and wastes

128
Q

Tetrapods are a ______.

A

clade

129
Q

What are some methods (examples) of parental care in VERTEBRATES?

A
  • fanning aquatic eggs with oxygen-rich water
  • guarding eggs and/or new young from predators
  • keeping eggs and young moist (amphibians) or keeping them warm and dry (reptiles and mammals)
  • supplying young with food
  • teaching survival skills to young
130
Q

__________ and ________ provide particularly _________ __________ _________.

A

mammals, birds

extensive parental care

131
Q

Describe how mammals and birds provide extensive parental care.

A
  • energetically expensive to provide
  • can improve the animals’ fitness by increasing the likelihood that their offspring will survive and reproduce
132
Q

What is a major reason for evolutionary success of mammals and birds?

A

evolution of extensive parental care

133
Q

What is viviparity?

A

development of embryo in the mother

134
Q

What are the evolutionary advantages of viviparity and of the placenta? (HINT: 3)

A
  1. offspring develop at a more constant, favorable temperature
  2. offspring are protected
  3. offspring are portable (mothers are not tied to a nest)
135
Q

All adaptive traits have _____-______. What are they for the placenta?

A

trade-offs

for placenta: energetically expensive to produce, bearing live young is energetically costly

136
Q

What are the defining characteristics of primates? (HINT: 7)

A
  1. hands and feet that are efficient at grasping
  2. flattened nails instead of flaws on fingers and toes
  3. relatively large brains
  4. color vision
  5. complex social behavior
  6. extensive parental care of offpsring
  7. forward-facing eyes
137
Q

What are the two groups of primates? Define each one.

A

prosimians: “before-monkeys”

anthropoids: “human-like”

138
Q

What are examples of prosimians?

A

lemurs, tarsiers, pottos, lorises

139
Q

Prosimians are a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

paraphyletic

140
Q

What are the characteristics of prosimians?

A

small-bodied, arboreal (lives in trees), and nocturnal

141
Q

What are examples of anthropoids?

A

New World monkeys (Central and South America), Old World monkeys (Africa and Asia), gibbons

***Hominidae or great apes (e.g. orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans)

142
Q

Monkeys are a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

paraphyletic

143
Q

Great apes are also called…?

A

hominids

144
Q

What are hominids?

A

relatively large bodied with long arms, short legs, and no tail

145
Q

What are the distinct ways of walking in hominids?

A

fist-walk/knuckle-walk

EXCEPTION: humans (bipedal; “two-footed”) — the only one that walks this way

146
Q

What’s wrong with the picture “The road to homo sapiens”? (HINT: 2)

A
  1. implies that all steps lead to humans (species in that “timeline” STILL EXIST… so this idea is wrong)
  2. evolutionary progression IS NOT linear (picture implies so)
    –> the species depicted are relatives, NOT direct ancestors
147
Q

What are hominins?

A

bipedal species

**homo sapiens and more than 20 extinct

148
Q

Hominins are a (monophyletic/paraphyletic) group.

A

monophyletic

149
Q

______ ________ are the sole survivor of adaptive radiation of hominis.

A

Homo sapiens (US!)

150
Q

Compared with other hominins, species in the genus ______ have extremely large _______ relative to overall body size.

A

Homo; brains

151
Q

What is the hypothesis to why homo sapiens are the sole survivor of Hominins?

A

using symbolic spoken language and tools:

  • increased language use and toolmaking triggered natural selection for capacity to reason, plan, and communicate
  • enabled Homo to cooperate in complex social networks
  • process favored larger brains
152
Q

What are the four general groups of hominins? When did these lineages appear?

A
  1. gracil australopithecines
  2. robust australopithecines
  3. Early Homo
  4. Recent Homo

appeared after the oldest known hominin (Ardipithecus ramidus)

153
Q

What are australophithecus?

A

composed of species of small hominins called GRACILE (“slender”) australopithecines
–> evidence support that they were bipedal

154
Q

What are paranthropus?

A

composed of 3 knowns species of bipedal ROBUST australopithecines
–> had massive cheek teeth and jaws, very large cheekbones, sagittal crest (bony mohawk on top of head)
–> hypothesized as an extinct monophyletic group

155
Q

All species in genus ______ are called humans.

A

Homo

156
Q

Compared to the earlier hominins, early Homo species have…? (HINT: 3)

A
  1. flatter and narrower faces
  2. smaller jaws and teeth
  3. larger braincases
157
Q

Many researchers argue that extensive ____________ was a diagnostic trait of early Homo.

A

toolmaking

158
Q

What is the most notable species of Early Homo?

A

Homo naledi

159
Q

Describe the characteristics of Homo naledi.

A
  • early human with mix of traits
  • general shape of skill modern (??? idk i just copied this from slides)
  • braincase is less than half the size of modern human’s
  • fossils are very young
160
Q

What is Recent Homo?

A

includes Homo sapiens (including Cro-Magnons), and Neanderthals

note: Cro-Magnons are early-day Europeans

161
Q

Recent Homo dates back ____ million years ago.

A

1.2

162
Q

Compared to early Homo species, recent Homo species have…? (HINT: 3)

A
  1. flatter faces
  2. smaller teeth
  3. larger braincases
163
Q

What is the “Out-of-Africa” hypothesis? Describe it.

A

leading hypothesis for evolution of Homo sapiens

  • H. sapiens evolved its distinctive traits in Africa and then dispersed throughout the world
  • H. sapiens evolved independently of earlier European and Asian species of Homo
164
Q

(In Homo sapiens) First lineages to branch off led to descend population that live in _____.

A

Africa

165
Q

(In Homo sapiens) Later branches gave rise to lineages residing in _______ ______, _________, ______ _____, _______ and the ________.

A

Central Asia, Europe, East Asia, Polynesia, and the Americas

166
Q

Human migration occurred in (one wave/more than one wave). Describe.

A

more than one wave

first wave: moved eat and south to Australia
second wave: moved to Europe and the rest of mainland Asia

167
Q

Homo sapiens interbred with what species? What races’ genomes are derived from them?

A

Neanderthals

Europeans and Asians, NOT Africans

168
Q

Have humans stopped evolving? Provide examples.

A

No.

coevolution with pathogens, effects of C-section on evolution of head size, spread of lactose tolerance mutation

169
Q

What are the parts of the vertebrate brain?

A

forebrain, midbrain, and hind-brain

BIO 94 (4 decks)

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