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BIO 94 > Midterm 3 (#14, 15, 16) > Flashcards

Midterm 3 (#14, 15, 16) Flashcards

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1
Q

describe the phylogenetic tree of fungi

A

they are eukaryotes, closely related to animals, not plants

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2
Q

what is the fungi mode of nutrition?

A

types of heterotroph –> decomposer and symbionts

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3
Q

what type of relationships do fungi usually have with other animals

A

frequently mutualistic symbiosis

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4
Q

how many species of fungi have been described and named?

A

110,000 species of fungi… hundreds more are discovered each year

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5
Q

how many species of fungi can be found world wide

A

6 million

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6
Q

why are fungi important 3 main reasons

A

1) fungal mutualisms are very important for plants –> obtain nutrients and protect plants from herbivores
2) animals participate in fungal mutualism
3) nutrient cycling (carbon cycle)

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7
Q

why do people care about fungi?

A

disease, essential for crop growth and crop spoilage, food source, antibiotics, bread, beer, cheese, industrial enzymes

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8
Q

fungi are more closely related to _______ than

A

animals than to land plants

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9
Q

which is more difficult to treat in humans fungal or bacterial infections

A

fungal infections

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10
Q

why are fungal infections harder to treat than bacterial infection?

A

drugs that interrupt fungal physiology are likely to damage humans

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11
Q

what key traits link animals and fungi (4)

A

1) DNA SEQUENCE DATA
2) both animals and fungi synthesize chitin
3) flagella in chytrid spores and gametes are similar to animal flagella
4) animal and fungi store glucose as the polysaccharide glycogen

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12
Q

microsporidians?

A

are fungi that are single-celled, parasitic eukaryotes

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13
Q

do microspores have a distantly related sister group to fungi?

A

NO

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14
Q

what is the hypothesis regarding microspores

A

fungicides (substances that can kill fungi or slow their growth) can cure microsporidian infections in bee colonies, silkworm colonies, and AIDS patients

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15
Q

chytrids and zygomycetes are …

A

POORLY resolved

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16
Q

Chytrids and zygomycetes have what on the phylogenetic tree?

A

polytomy on phylogenetic tree

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17
Q

swimming gametes and zygosporangium evolved….

A

more than once or both were present in a common ancestor but lost in certain lineages

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18
Q

glomeromycota is …

A

monophyletic

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19
Q

adaptations that helped glomeromycota to live with plant roots as mycorrihzae evolved how many times?

A

ONCE

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20
Q

Basidiomycetes are ….

A

monophyletic

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21
Q

how many times did the basidium evolve?

A

once

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22
Q

ascomyctes are …

A

monophyletic

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23
Q

how many times did the ascus evolve?

A

ONCE

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24
Q

basidiomycota and Ascomycota form what?

A

a monophyletic group

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25
Q

Basidiomycota and Ascomycota both form. WHAT and how many times did it evolve

A

septate hyphae (cellular compartments made by septa) and large “fruiting” structures; this growth habit
evolved once

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26
Q

sister group to fungi comprises what?

A

animals plus choanoflagellates

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27
Q

The earliest fungi were___, and the switch to teresterial life occurred ______________

A

aquatic, and evolved early in evolution of fungi

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28
Q

fungi have very ____ _____

A

simple bodies

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29
Q

what are the two growth forms of fungi and how do they exist

A

1) single celled forms - YEAST
2) multicellular, filamentous form - mycelia

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30
Q

mycelia are made of

A

branching networks of very thin hyphae

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31
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: some species of fungi can adopt both forms of growth

A

TRUE

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32
Q

bc of the thin branching networks of mycelia

A

1) fungi have the highest surface-area-to-volume ratio of all multicellular
organisms
2) Nutrient absorption is extremely efficient
3) Prone to drying out:

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33
Q

since mycelia are prone to drying out what are the results

A
  • Thus most abundant in moist environments
  • Reproductive spores are resistant to drying out
  • Spores can endure dry periods and then germinate
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34
Q

ALL mycelia are ______

A

DYNAMIC

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35
Q

describe the growth and life cycle of mycelia, and the one word that describes it all

A

They constantly grow in the direction of food sources and die back in areas
where food is running out –> DYNAMIC

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36
Q

The body shape of a fungus ……

A

can change almost continuously throughout its life

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37
Q

Both the reproductive structure and mycelium …..

A

are composed of hyphae.

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38
Q

*Mycelia are what to a fungi?

A

an adaptation that supports external digestion and the absorptive
lifestyle of fungi

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39
Q

Many species of fungi …..

A

do not reproduce sexually

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40
Q

In fungi that don’t reproduce sexually, the lineages have important

A

morphological differences

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41
Q

Most hyphae are divided into compartments by

A

septa

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42
Q

The Nature of Hyphae Hyphae are

A

the long, narrow filaments of mycelium.

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43
Q

the pores in the mycelium filaments allow for

A

materials to flow between the compartments created by the septa

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44
Q

Coenocytic hyphae consist

A

of multinucleate cells.

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45
Q

what does coenocytic mean

A

they lack septa

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46
Q

some fungi can lack septa which means they are…

A

COENOCYTIC

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47
Q

in the mycelium descibe the nuclei

A

– Many nuclei are scattered throughout the mycelium

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48
Q

in fungi how can nutrients movemore rapidly

A

through septa pores or through coenocytic fungi from uptake to growth areas

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49
Q

MEMORISE THE GENERALIZED FUNGAL LIFE CYCLE

A

pg 16 of lecture 14

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50
Q

what are the key stages of the chytrid life cycle

A
  1. Haploid adults form gametangia:
    – Mitosis produces male and female swimming gametes
  2. Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote
  3. The zygote grows into a diploid sporophyte
  4. Haploid spores, which disperse by swimming, are produced by meiosis inside
    the sporophyte’s sporangium

***no heterokaryotic stage

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51
Q

Zygomyctes life cylce

A

***** Plasmogamy forms a spore-forming zygosporangium (unique to this fungi) that develops a tough, resistant coat

  • Inside the zygosporangium, nuclei from the mating partners fuse—meaning that karyogamy
    occurs
  • Mycelia can also reproduce asexually by making sporangia, which produce haploid spores by
    mitosis:
  • The spores are then dispersed by the wind
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52
Q

Key features of basidiomycota?

A

club-shaped cells; karyogamy occurs before plasmogamy

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53
Q

Zygosporangia are

A

Distinctive spore-producing structures of zygomycetes

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54
Q

Key features of ascomycota?

A

sac-like cells called ascus; they have sex

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55
Q

What is an ascus?

A

sac-like cells, part of ascomycota

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56
Q

how are Zygosporangia formed

A

Formed from fusion of cells from joined-together haploid hyphae from two individuals

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57
Q

mushrooms are sexual reproductive structure produced by

A

basidiomycetes

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58
Q

All basidiomycete reproductive structures originate

A

from the dikaryotic hyphae of mated
individuals:

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59
Q

karyogamy occurs within the

A

basidia

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60
Q

The club-like, spore-producing cells are

A

basidia

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61
Q

where do basidia form

A

form at the ends of dikaryotic hyphae

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62
Q

Each basidium produces

A

four spores

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63
Q

Hyphae or specialized structures from different mating types fuse to form

A

a heterokaryotic cell with many nuclei

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64
Q

Each ascus produces

A

eight spores

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65
Q

ALL fungi absorb

A

food from their surroundings

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66
Q

what drive the diversification of fungi

A

Evolution of novel methods for absorbing nutrients from
a wide array of food sources

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67
Q

The first plants in the fossil record are closely associated

A

with fungal fossils

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68
Q

The ability to absorb nutrients from fungi may have been crucial

A

in the early
evolution of land plants

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69
Q

Fungi and land plants often have a

A

symbiotic relationship

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70
Q

Mutualistic relationships

A

benefit both species

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71
Q

parasitic relationships

A

one species benefits at the expense of the other

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72
Q

Commensal relationships

A

benefit one species while the other is unaffected

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73
Q

Mycorrhizal fungi is an example of

A

plant symbioses via roots

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74
Q

whta two types of fungi are present in the mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis with plants via roots

A

Ectomycorrhizal fungi
Arbuscular mycorrhizal

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75
Q

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)

A

contact plasma membranes of root cells.

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76
Q

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF)

A

form sheaths around roots and penetrate between root cells.

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77
Q

EMF are found where

A

on many tree species in temperate regions

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78
Q

EMF hyphae penetrate

A

decaying material and release peptidases:
Peptidases cleave proteins, releasing amino acids that the hyphaetransport to spaces between the plant root cells:
▪ The plant can now absorb the amino acids

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79
Q

EMF also provide ______ ions to the host plant, in return, the EMF receive _____

A

phosphate, sugar

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80
Q
  • Endophytes
A

(“inside-plants”)—organisms that live
between and within plant cells

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81
Q

ENdophytes live in close association with

A

ROOTS OR ABOVEGROUND TISSUE OF PLANTS

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82
Q

WHAT was Unknown before the 1940s but extremely common and
highly diverse

A

Endophytes

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83
Q

what can some endophytes do

A

– Some increase drought tolerance of their host plants
– Some produce compounds that benefit plants by
deterring or killing herbivores
– Receive benefits by absorbing sugars from plants

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84
Q

what three adatations make fungi such effective decomposers

A
  • Given enough time, fungi can turn even the hardest, most massive trees into soft soils
  • The large surface area of a mycelium makes nutrient absorption exceptionally efficient
  • Saprophytic fungi can grow toward the dead tissues that supply their food
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85
Q

fungi speed up what and how?

A

the carbon cycle since they break down dead trees in terrestrial ecosystems

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86
Q

what are saprophtyes

A

fungi that digest dead plant material

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87
Q

how do saprophytes help the carbon system

A

through terrestrial systems

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88
Q

what are the two basic components of the carbon cycle

A

fixation of carbon by land plants
release of co2 from cellular respiration

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89
Q

what is hard for most organisms to use

A

lignin and cellulose

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90
Q

without fungi, a lot of ….

A

carbon would be locked away in dead plant matter

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91
Q

how do saprophytic fungi degrade lignin

A

they use lignin peroxidase to break down lignin and expose cellulose that can fuel growth and reproduction

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92
Q

fungi cant live on ___ alone

A

lignin

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93
Q

how do fungi degrade cellulose

A

fungi secrete cellulases into the extracellular environment–> cellulase convert cellulose into glucose that the fungus can absorb and use as a source of food

94
Q

How many species have been described to date

A

1.4 million species

95
Q

Where did animals originate from

A

single-celled eukaryotes

96
Q

what lineage did animals come from

A

lineage called Opisthokonta

97
Q

What does the Opisthokonta include?

A

fungi, choanoflagellates, animals

98
Q

what are the closest living relatives to animals and when did they share a common ancestor

A

Choanoflagellates are closets living relatives to animals ; share common ancestor 900 million years ago

99
Q

WHAT TYPE of clade are animals

A

MONOPHYLETIC CLAD

100
Q

what are key traits of the monophyletic clade of animals (4)

A

1) multicellular eukaryotes, with no cell walls but with an extensive extracellular matrix
2) Heterotrophs
3) move under own power at some point in life cycle
4) all animals other than sponges has NEURONS, and MUSCLE cells that change shape of body by contraction
–> therefore neurons and muscles are not synapomorphies

101
Q

ALL animals have a common ancestor that was a

A

MULTICELLULAR organism

102
Q

single orgin of animals is based on data from

A

fossils
comparative morphology
comparative development
comparative genomics

103
Q

prevailing hypothesis about ancient linage of animals

A

prevailing hypothesis is that sponges are most ancient linage of animals

104
Q

what type of clade are sponges

A

PARAPHYLETIC group - containing some, but not all descendants of common ancestor

105
Q

What genetic tools do sponges have that are needed for multicellularity

A

cell cell adhesion
cell- ecm adhesion
few even have epithelium

106
Q

Do sponges have complex tissue? If not, what do they have

A

NO, groups of similar cells that are organized into tightly integrated structural and functional units

107
Q

what is Epithelium

A

layer of tightly joined cells that covers interior and exterior surface of an animal

108
Q

_______ is essential to animals form and function

A

Epithelium

109
Q

What type of organism has TRUE Epithelium

A

sponges

110
Q

Sponges first hypothesis?

A

earliest animals to appear in the fossil record

111
Q

When did the first sponge appear?

A

more than 700 million years ago

112
Q

what is consistent with basal position of sponges on phylogeny

A

presence of multicellular sponges and absence of fossils of other multicellular organisms

113
Q

Sponges share characteristics with

A

choanoflagellates

114
Q

bothe sponges and choanoflagellates

A
  • are benthic (live at bottom of body of water) and sessile (immobile)
  • both feed using cells with nearly identical morphology
115
Q

differences between choanoflagellates and sponges

A
  • sponges may contain many specialized type of cells which are dependent on each other
116
Q

choanoflagellates sometimes form _____

A

colonies

117
Q

sponges were once considered

A

colonies of single celled protists

118
Q

two major types of embryonic tissue layers

A

dipoblasty
triplobasty

119
Q

dipoblasts?

A

animals whose embryos have two types of tissues or germ layers

120
Q

type of germ layers in dipoblasts

A

ectoderm
endoderm

121
Q

germ layers develop into

A

distinct adult tissues and organs

122
Q

triploblasts?

A

are animals whose embryos have three germ layers

123
Q

types of germ layers in tripoblasts

A

ectoderm
endoderm
mesoderm

124
Q

what is shared between diplo and tripo blasty

A
  • mesoderm-like cells in mesonlea
  • genes coding for structural components of mesodermal cells
  • some can change the shape of their bodies
  • actin and myosin
125
Q

what is missing in dipoblasts that can be found in tripoblasts

A

mesodermal specification genes
well- defined mesoderm
true muscles

126
Q

body symmetry -

A

key morphological aspect of animal’s body plan

127
Q

Radial symmetry?

A

symmetry around a central axis
symmetrical on multiple planes

128
Q

most animals exibit which type of symmetry

A

bilateral symmety

129
Q

what is bilateral symmetry

A

a single plane of symmetry

130
Q

WHICH symmetry eveolved first

A

radial symmetry appears to have evolved earlier than bilateral symmetry

131
Q

ALL __________ are bilaterally symmetric

A

triploblasts

except starfish!

132
Q

bilaterians?

A

are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical animals

133
Q

symmetry in bilaterians results from action of

A

hox genes
decaoentaplegic

134
Q

Biologists hypothesized that bilateral symmetry seen in some cnidarians is homologous

A

to bilateral symmetry in bilaterians

135
Q

Some parts of genetic tool kit for bilateral symmetry arose

A

before cnidarian
and bilaterian lineages split

136
Q

symmetry and _____ _____ are related

A

nervous system

137
Q

sponges lack

A

nerve cells and symmetry

138
Q

evolution of central system coincided with

A

cephalization

139
Q

basic bilaterian body shape is a

A

tube within a tube

140
Q

what are the parts in the tube within a tube body plan

A

inner tube
outer tube
mesoderm

141
Q

coelom?

A

is an enclosed, fluid filled body cavity between the tubes

142
Q

benefits of coelom

A
  1. enables the internal organs to move independently of each other
  2. mprovides a space for oxygen and nutrients to circulate
143
Q

true coelomates

A

coelom is completely lined with mesoderm

144
Q

acoelomates

A

no cavity form
no coelom, such as the flatworm

145
Q

Pseudocoelomates

A

Coelom is only partially lined with mesoderm, such as roundworms (phylum
Nematoda) and rotifers

146
Q

Evolutionary flexibility of coelom has …

A

reduced its usefulness as a synapomorphy for bilaterian animals

147
Q

common ancestor of protostomes and deterostomes 1

A

Common ancestor during Cambrian was likely bilaterally symmetric triploblast with CNS, cephalization, and coelom

148
Q

Protostomes

A

, (“first-mouth”), named for embryonic development of mouth before anus

149
Q

Deuterostomes,

A

(“second-mouth”), named for embryonic development of
anus before mouth

150
Q

traditional vs recent view of protostomes

A

▪ Traditional view: In protostomes, blastopore becomes mouth and anus forms
later
▪ Recent view: Development is highly variable in protostomes—blastopore may
become anus, mouth, both anus and mouth, or neither

151
Q

segmentation

A

division of body or part of body into series of similar structures

152
Q

what is one of the defining characteristics of vertebrates

A

segmented backbone

153
Q

invertebrates are what type of clade

A

paraphyletic group

154
Q

vertebrates are what type of clade

A

monophyletic

155
Q

Segmentation enables….

A

specialization

156
Q

Animals within lineage with similar body plan may

A

pursue different food sources and feeding strategies if their niche
differs

157
Q
  • Conversely, animals from different lineages with similar niches
A

often pursue the same food sources andfeeding
strategies

158
Q

Detritivores

A

Feed on dead
organic matter

159
Q

Herbivores

A

Feed on plants
or algae

160
Q

Carnivores

A

Feed on animals

161
Q

Omnivores

A

Feed on a
combination of
plants, animals,
fungi, protists,
archaea and/or
bacteria

162
Q

Parasites

A

harvest nutrients from parts of their hosts
are usually smaller than their victims

163
Q

Endoparasites

A

live inside their hosts and usually have simple, wormlike bodies

164
Q

Ectoparasites

A

live outside their hosts and usually have limbs or mouthparts that allow them to grasp the host

165
Q

Suspension feeders

A

Capture food by filtering
out particles floating in
water or drifting through
the air

166
Q

Deposit feeders

A

Ingest organic material
that has been deposited
within a substrate or on
its surface

167
Q

Fluid feeders

A

Suck or mop up liquids
like nectar, plant sap,
blood, or fruit juice

168
Q

Deposit feeders

A

Ingest organic material
that has been deposited
within a substrate or on
its surface

169
Q

Mass feeders

A

Take chunks of food
into their mouths

170
Q

Key aspect of cephalization:

A
  • Concentration of sensory organs in head region
  • Great deal of diversity of sensory abilities and structures among the animals
171
Q

Most animals also have some ability

A

to sense temperature

172
Q

how many types of skeletal systems are there and what are they

A

three
hydrostatic skeleton
endoskeleton
exoskeleton

173
Q

Hydrostatic skeletons:

A

support from flexible body wall in tension surrounding
fluid or soft tissue under compression

174
Q

Endoskeletons

A

derive support from rigid structures inside the body, such as
bones in vertebrates and spicules in sponges

175
Q

Exoskeletons

A

derive support from rigid structures on the outside of the body, such
as the external armor of arthropods

176
Q

types of limbs

A

lobe like limbs
parapodia
arms and tentacles
tube feet
jointed limbs

177
Q

External fertilization is associated

A

with water

178
Q

internal fertilization is related to

A

land

179
Q

Ovoviviparous

A

eggs + live bearing

180
Q

viviparous

A

live bearing

181
Q

oviparous

A

egg bearing

182
Q

when did the animal phyla EXPLODE

A

cambrian explosion

183
Q

what is a special feature of the cambrian period

A

diversity of body types

184
Q

most sexually reproducing animals have …

A

diploid dominant life cycles

185
Q

metamorphosis

A

drastic change from one developmental stage to another

186
Q

metamorphosis contrast with

A

direct developement where an animal is born essentially as a smaller version of the adult form

187
Q

INdirect development of metamorphisis

A

:
– Embryogenesis produces larvae (larva), which:
Look radically different from adults
Live in different habitats and eat different foods
– Metamorphosis transforms larvae into juveniles, which:
Look like adults
Live in the same habitats and eat the same foods
Are still sexually immature
– Growth and maturation transform the juveniles into adults—reproductive
stage in life cycle

188
Q

Fossil record and phylogeny of animals agree that

A

– Porifera (sponges)
– Ctenophora (comb jellies) and
– Cnidaria (jellyfish and others)

are most ancient of all
major animal lineages

189
Q

Porifera (sponges), Ctenophora (comb jellies), Cnidaria all have

A

global marine distribution

190
Q

what are the five major animal lineages

A

Sponges
-Comb jellies
-Corals and jellyfish
-Protostomes - deuterostomes

SOMEONE DOUBLE CHECK THIS

191
Q

what ratio of the animal phyla are prostomes

A

22/30

192
Q

what are some roles that protostomes fill

A
  • Live in virtually every aquatic and terrestrial habitat
    – Can be detritivores, herbivores, or carnivores
    – Ecological importance of protostomes extends to human health
193
Q

two major subgroups of protostomes

A

lophotrochozoans and ecdysozoans

194
Q

protostome phyla have what kind of diversity

A

ALL KINDs, some have very little species and some have very many species

195
Q

Fossils indicate protostomelineages originated

A

in the ocean

196
Q

HOW many times did protosomes make transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments

A

MULTIPLE TIME

197
Q

Most protostome lineages, especially snails (Mollusca) and Arthropoda, survived on land and experienced ….

A

– Experience adaptive radiation

198
Q

what is adaptive radiation

A

Period of rapid speciation

199
Q
A
200
Q

why transition to land

A

ecological opportunity–> open up entirely new habitats and new resourcers to exploit

201
Q

protostomes transition to land coincided with

A

adaptive raditation of plants on land

202
Q

land plant thrive in

A

increased availability pf sunlight and co2 on land compared to water which resulted in high net primary productivity of land plants

203
Q

what are the challenged of land transitions

A
  1. Exchange gases
  2. Avoid drying out
  3. Hold up their bodies under their own weight
204
Q

why are protosomes important

A

– Major direct source of food for humans (seafood!)
– Provide ecosystem services (pollination!)
– Some damage crops (pests)
– Some produce materials such as silk and pearls
– Cause or transmit human diseases and are parasites
(mosquitoes, ticks, etc)
– Include two of the most important model organisms:
Fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and roundworm
Caenorhabditis elegans

205
Q

key innovations in round worms and earthworms to adapt to land

A
  • Have high surface-area-to-volume ratio
    – Increases efficiency of gas exchange across their body
    surface in their moist environments
206
Q

Terrestrial arthropods and mollusks adaptations to land?

A

-Have gills or other respiratory structures located inside
the body
– Minimizes water loss when moving onto land

207
Q

key innovations in insects to move to land

A

evolved a waxy layer to minimize water loss from body surface (cuticle)
– If environment dries, openings to respiratory passages
can be closed

208
Q

Desiccation-resistant eggs evolved ….

A

Evolved repeatedly in populations that made transition
to life on land

209
Q

Modular body plans allow for

A

phenotypic innovation through minor expression changes

210
Q

Protostomes such as mollusks and arthropods have

A

compartmentalized body
plans

211
Q

compartmentalized body
plans is a key inovation for

A

evolutionary flexibility

212
Q

Mechanism for dramatic diversification in new ecological contexts:

A

Gene expression of regulatory genes
– Produce structural and functional innovation
– Example: Hox genes

213
Q

What are lophotrochozoans

A

Monophyletic group—all descendants of common ancestor
* 13 phyla include rotifers, flatworms, annelids, and mollusks

214
Q

key feactures of lophotrochozoans

A

lophophore (ring of cilia) and
trochophore (ring of cilia but for larvae)

215
Q

lophophore?

A

Specialized structure that rings mouth of these animals and functions in suspension
feeding

216
Q

trochophore

A

Type of larva common to several phyla of lophotrochozoa (has a ring of cilia)

217
Q

Trochophore larvae have a ______ ____ ______ around their middle that functions in sweeping
and, sometimes, in feeding

A

ring of cilia

218
Q

Trochophore larvae occur in animals that undergo

A

indirect development

219
Q

Trochophore larvae originated early in

A

Originated early evolution of lophotrochozoans:
Later evolved into different larval types in some groups

220
Q

Lophotrochozoans possess what type of cleavage

A

spiral cleavage

221
Q

what is a synapomorphy in Lophotrochozoans

A

spiral cleavage

222
Q

spiral cleavage is

A

When cells divide at oblique angles,
spiraling pattern of cells in blastula
results

223
Q

– Spiral cleavage has been _________ ____________ in some lophotrochozoan
phyla, but has been …

A

highly conserved, modified or lost in others

224
Q

Cuticle and exoskeleton?

A

– Protect these animals from predators
– Provide an effective structure for muscle attachment

225
Q

During molting,

A

animal’s soft body is exposed and vulnerable:

226
Q

ecdysone

A

is a hormone important in regulation of molting cycle

227
Q

Lophotrochozoans and Ecdysozoans Differ

A

in Their Mechanism of Growth.

228
Q

Ecdysozoans grow

A

intermittently by molting:
– Shedding of the soft cuticle or hard exoskeleton

229
Q

Ecdysozoans undergo ______________ as they grow

A

succession of molts

230
Q

what can happen during molts of ecdysozoans

A

Sometimes dramatic morphological transformations occur during these
molts

BIO 94 (4 decks)

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