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BIOL 1009 > Midterm #2 Vocabulary > Flashcards

Midterm #2 Vocabulary Flashcards

1
Q

Glycolysis

A

Process that breaks glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules. Occurs in the cytosol.

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2
Q

Pyruvate Processing

A

Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA (to be used as an electron carrier).
Occurs in mitochondrial matrix.

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3
Q

Citric Acid Cycle (AKA Krebs Cycle)

A

Process that completes the breakdown of glucose to CO2.

Occurs in mitochondrial matrix.

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4
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

Uses the high energy electrons from the Krebs Cycle to convert ADP to ATP.
Occurs in inner membrane (cristae) of mitochondria.

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5
Q

Oxidation

A

Loss of electrons from the one substance

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6
Q

Reduction

A

Addition of electrons to another substance

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7
Q

Electron Donor

A

Compound that donates an electron to another, like in the electron transport chain.

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8
Q

Electron Acceptor

A

Compound that accepts an electron from a preceding one, like in the electron transport chain. In the electron transport chain, oxygen is the terminal (final) electron acceptor.

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9
Q

Mitochondrial Matrix

A

Location where pyruvate processing and the Krebs cycle takes place.

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10
Q

Acetyl CoA

A

Coenzyme that pyruvate in convereted into in the mitochondrion. Conversion is carrieed out by multienzyme complex that catalyzes 3 reactions.

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11
Q

Proton Gradient

A

The product of the electron transport chain. A higher concentration of protons outside the inner membrane of the mitochondria than inside the membrane is the driving force behind ATP synthesis.

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12
Q

NAD+/NADH

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
A coenzyme, electron carrier because it can cycle easily between oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) states. Functions as an oxidizing agent during respiration, and traps electrons using dehydrogenase enzymes.

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13
Q

ATP Synthase

A

Enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

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14
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Mode of ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions in the electron transport chain (energy stored in mitochondria). Accounts for ~90% of respiration’s ATP.

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15
Q

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

A

ATP synthesis by transferring a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ATP

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16
Q

Fermentation

A

Catabolic process that partially degrades sugars or other organic fuels without the use of oxygen. Is essentially an extension of glycolysis that allows continuous generation of ATP by the substrate-level phosphorylation of glycolysis. Yields 2 molecules of ATP, therefore less effective than respiration.

Two types: alcohol fermentation (regenerates NAD+ and releases CO2) and lactic acid fermentation (regenerates NAD+, does not release CO2)

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17
Q

Autotroph

A

“Self feeder”

Sustains self without eating anything derived from other living beings. Produces organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic raw materials. Also called “producers.”

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18
Q

Heterotroph

A

Lives on the compounds produced by other organisms. “Consumers.”

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19
Q

Thylakoid

A

Sacs that segregate the stroma form the thylakoid space. A column of thylakoid sacs is called a granum (plural grana).

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20
Q

Thylakoid Space

A

A membrane-bound compartment inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

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21
Q

Stroma

A

Microscopic pore by which CO2 enters and O2 exists the chloroplast.

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22
Q

Pigment

A

Present in chloroplasts or photosynthetic bacteria and captures the light energy necessary for photosynthesis.

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23
Q

Chlorophyll

A

Green pigment in thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. Absorbs light energy.

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24
Q

Carotenoids

A

Accessory pigments; hydrocarbons that are yellow and orange to absorb violet and blue-green light

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25
Q

Photosystems

A

Chlorophyll molecules organized with other small organic molecules and proteins in the thylakoid membrane.

There are two photosystems: I (best with 700 nm) and II (best with 680 nm)

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26
Q

Wavelength

A

Distance between the creasts of electromagnetic waves

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27
Q

Light Reactions

A

“photo” part of photosynthesis
The steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy into chemical energy. Uses solar energy to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. Generates ATP using chemiosmosis to phosphorylate ADP. Produces NO sugar, occurs in thylakoids.

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28
Q

Calvin Cycle (AKA Dark Reaction)

A

Incorporates CO2 into organic molecules in chloroplast (carbon fixation). Uses NADPH and ATP form the light reaction to reduce the fixed carbon to carbohydrate.
Occurs in the stroma.

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29
Q

Carbon Fixation

A

The incorporation of CO2 into organic molecules in the chloroplast

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30
Q

DNA

A

16

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31
Q

RNA

A

16

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32
Q

Nucleotide

A

16

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33
Q

Sugar

A

16

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34
Q

Phosphate

A

16

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35
Q

Base

A

16

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36
Q

Ribose

A

The sugar making up RNA (as opposed to deoxyribose in DNA)

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37
Q

Deoxyribose

A

The sugar making up DNA (as opposed to ribose in RNA)

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38
Q

Adenine

A

Nitrogenous base, pairs with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA

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39
Q

Thymine

A

Nitrogenous base, pairs with adenine

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40
Q

Guanine

A

Nitrogenous base, pairs with cytosine

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41
Q

Cytosine

A

Nitrogenous base, pairs with guanine

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42
Q

Uracil

A

Nitrogenous base in RNA that pairs with adenine

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43
Q

Strand

A

16

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44
Q

Backbone

A

16

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45
Q

Genes

A

The discrete unit of heredity. A distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which a cell (or virus) may synthesize

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46
Q

Genetics

A

The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.

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47
Q

Inheritance

A

16

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48
Q

Hereditary Information

A

16

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49
Q

Base Pairing

A

16

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50
Q

Complemenetary

A

16

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51
Q

Antiparallel

A

Subunits run in opposite directions.

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52
Q

Double Helix

A

The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral

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53
Q

Replication

A

16

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54
Q

Template

A

16

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55
Q

Parental Strand

A

16

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56
Q

Daughter Strand

A

16

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57
Q

Chromatin

A

Complex of DNA and protein

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58
Q

Chromosome

A

16

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59
Q

Histone

A

Protein responsible for the 1st level of DNA packing in chromatin.
Most common = H2A, H2B, H3, H4

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60
Q

Nucleosome

A

The basic unit of DNA packing. Consists of a segment of DNA would around a protein core composed of copies of each of the 4 histones

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61
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

RNA, synthesized from a DNA template during transcription, that mediates the transfer of genetic information from the cell nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis

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62
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

RNA that transfers amino acids from the cytoplasmic pool of amino acids to a growing polypeptide in a ribosome.

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63
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

RNA molecules that, together with proteins, make up ribosomes.
Most abundant type of RNA.

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64
Q

5’ end

A

Refers to part of the DNA strand whose 5’ carbon has a phosphate group attached to it.

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65
Q

3’ end

A

Refers to part of the DNA strand whose 3’ carbon a hydroxyl group attached to it.

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66
Q

N terminus

A

17

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67
Q

C terminus

A

17

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68
Q

Transcription

A

The first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA (mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase

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69
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

An enzyme that produces primary transcript RNA, which is necessary for constructing RNA chains using DNA genes as templates, a process called transcription.

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70
Q

Transcription Factors

A

Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription

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71
Q

Promoter

A

DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription

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72
Q

Template Strand

A

One of the two DNA strands that’s transcribed and provides the pattern for the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript
- same strand always used in the particular gene

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73
Q

Non-template Strand

A

Opposite of a template strand, is not transcribed or provide pattern for the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript.

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74
Q

RNA Processing

A

When enzymes in eukaryotic nuclei modify pre-mRNA before the genetic message is dispatched into the cytoplasm. Both ends of the primary transcript are altered.

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75
Q

5’ Cap

A

A modified form of guanine nucleotide added onto the 5’ end after transcription of the first 20-40 nucleotides

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76
Q

PolyA Tail

A

The addition of 50-250 more adenine nucleotides to the 3’ end after the polyadenylation sequence.

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77
Q

RNA Splicing

A

The removal of large portions of the RNA molecule that’s initially made

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78
Q

Exons

A

Segments of nucleic acids that will usually eventually be expressed and exit the nucleus (opposite of introns).

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79
Q

Introns

A

Noncoding segments of nucleic acids that lie between coding regions (opposite of exons).

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80
Q

Primary Transcript

A

The initial RNA transcript from any gene.

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81
Q

Mature mRNA

A

17

82
Q

Untranslated Regions (UTRs)

A

17

83
Q

Translation

A

The process in which cellular ribosomes create proteins. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA)—produced by transcription from DNA—is decoded by a ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide.

84
Q

Ribosome

A

Particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize polypeptides and proteins.

85
Q

Genetic Code

A

the nucleotide triplets of DNA and RNA molecules that carry genetic information in living cells.

86
Q

Codon

A

A sequence of three nucleotides that together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.

87
Q

Start Codon

A

The first codon of a messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript translated by a ribosome. The start codon always codes for methionine in eukaryotes- usually AUG.

88
Q

Stop Codon

A

A nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals a termination of translation

89
Q

Reading Frame

A

Reading symbols in the correct groupings. With DNA, reading the nucleotide sequence in codons.

90
Q

Mutation

A

Change to genetic information in a cell

91
Q

Frame Shift Mutation

A

Alters the triplet grouping of nucleotides on the mRNAA read during translation
Occurs when insertion/deletion isn’t a multiple of 3

92
Q

Differential Gene Expression

A

The expression of different genes by cells with the same genome

93
Q

Enhancer

A

Distal control elements farther from the promoter

94
Q

Control Elements

A

Segments of noncoding DNA that serve as binding sites for the proteins called transcription factors (which regulate transcription)

95
Q

Transcription Activators

A

A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a gene

96
Q

Transcription Repressors

A

Protein that blocks attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter, preventing gene transcription

97
Q

DNA-binding Domain

A

18

98
Q

Activation Domain

A

18

99
Q

Differentiation

A

The process by which cells become specialized in structure and function, attaining its determined fate

100
Q

Chromatin Structure/Modification

A

18

101
Q

MicroRNA

A

A cellular RNA fragment that prevents the production of a particular protein by binding to and destroying the messenger RNA that would have produced the protein.

102
Q

Cell Cycle

A

The life of a cell from the time its first formed during division of a parent cell until its own division into two daughter cells

103
Q

Mitosis

A

The division of genetic material in the nucleus

104
Q

DNA Synthesis

A

The natural or artificial creation of DNA molecules.

105
Q

DNA Replication

A

The process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules

106
Q

Chromatin

A

The entire complex of DNA and proteins that is the building material of chromosomes

107
Q

Chromosome

A

Structure of packaged DNA molecules. Consists of a long DNA molecule associated with many proteins.

108
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

Joined copies of the original chromosome, attached by cohesins.

109
Q

G1 Phase

A

Part of interphase- the first gap

110
Q

S Phase

A

Part of interphase- synthesis

111
Q

G2 Phase

A

Part of interphase- the second gap

112
Q

Mitotic (M) Phase

A

Phase including mitosis and cytokinesis

113
Q

Prophase

A

Spindle formation
Chromosomes condense
Crossing over occurs

114
Q

Prometaphase

A

Separates the duplicated genetic material of the nucleus

Nuclear envelope breaks down

115
Q

Metaphase

A

Homologs line up at the metaphase plate

116
Q

Anaphase

A

Each pair of homologs separate

Homologs move toward opposite poles

117
Q

Telophase

A

2 haploid cells form
Each chromosome still has two sister chromatids
Cleavage furrow

118
Q

Interphase

A

Period in cell cycle where the cell is not dividing. During this time, the cell grows to a larger size. Includes the G1, S, and G2 phase.

119
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The division of the cytoplasm

120
Q

Mitotic Spindle

A

Forms in prophase. Structure made of fibers from microtubules and associated proteins.

121
Q

Centrosome

A

Subcellular region made of material that organizes microtubules

122
Q

Centromere

A

Region of chromosomal DNA where the chromatid is attached most closely to its sister chromatid

123
Q

Checkpoint

A

A control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle. Important checkpoints exist in the G1, G2, and M phases.

124
Q

Growth Factor

A

Protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide

125
Q

Cancer

A

Uncontrolled growth of cells.

126
Q

Metastasis

A

Spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site

127
Q

Apoptosis

A

The death of cells that occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism’s growth or development.
When apoptosis doesn’t occur like it should, cancer can occur

128
Q

Deletion

A

Failure to copy one of the bases (a mutation) - a chromosome fragment is lost

129
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Enzyme that is responsible for forming new copies of DNA, in the form of nucleic acid molecules

130
Q

Duplication

A

Product of a deleted fragment becoming attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid

131
Q

Germ-line Mutation

A

Changes in a cell used for reproduction

132
Q

Helicase

A

Enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication fork, separating the two parental strands, making them available as template strands.

133
Q

Insertion

A

The addition of a new base or several bases as a mutation

134
Q

Lagging Strand

A

DNA strand elongating away from the replication fork

135
Q

Leading Strand

A

DNA strand made as DNA pol III adds nucleotides to the new complementary strand as the fork progresses

136
Q

DNA Ligase

A

Enzyme that joins the sugar-phosphate backbones of all the Okazaki fragments into a continuous DNA strand

137
Q

Missense Mutation

A

Substitutions that change one amino acid to another

138
Q

Nonsense Mutation

A

Changes a codon for an amino acid into a stop codon, causing premature termination

139
Q

Nuclease

A

An enzyme that cleaves the chains of nucleotides in nucleic acids into smaller units

140
Q

Nucleotide Excision Repair

A

Removes damaged nucleotide sequences

141
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A

Segments of the lagging strand that are synthesized discontinuously

142
Q

Origins of Replication

A

Short stretches of DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides. Where the replication of a chromosome begins.

143
Q

Point Mutation

A

One base pair is changed (happens one in ever 10^10 base pairs)

144
Q

Primase

A

enzyme involved in the replication of DNA. DNA primase is a type of RNA polymerase which creates an RNA primer

145
Q

Primer

A

The initial nucleotide chain (RNA) that is produced by DNA synthesis

146
Q

Proof Reading

A

/

147
Q

Replication Bubble

A

/

148
Q

Replication Fork

A

Y-shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound during replication.

149
Q

Semi-conservative

A

Describes how each daughter molecule of DNA will have one strands of the “old” parental DNA and one “new” replicated strand

150
Q

Silent Mutation

A

Mutation with no observable effect on phenotype

151
Q

Single-Strand Binding Proteins

A

Bind to the unpaired DNA strands, keeping them from repairing

152
Q

Somatic Mutation

A

A mutation that occurs in body cell that aren’t passed along to subsequent generations

153
Q

Translocation

A

When a chromosome fragment joins a nonhomologous chromosome

154
Q

Allele

A

Alternate version of a gene

155
Q

Chiasmata

A

Visible points of crossing over

156
Q

Chromatid

A

/

157
Q

Crossing Over

A

Process that breaks the physical connection between specific alleles on the same chromosome and the end points of 2 nonsister chromatids trade places

158
Q

Dihybrid Cross

A

Cross between F1 (first fillial) generation dihybrids

159
Q

Diploid

A

Having two sets of chromosomes

160
Q

Dominant

A

/

161
Q

Gamete

A

/

162
Q

Haploid

A

Having a single set of chromosomes. ex: gametes

163
Q

Heterozygous

A

Having two different alleles for a character. Not true breeding.

164
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

2 chromosomes of a pair that have the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern.

165
Q

Homozygous

A

Having a pair of identical alleles for a character.

166
Q

Independent Assortment

A

2 or more genes assort independently- that is, each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles- during gamete formation

167
Q

Linked Genes

A

/

168
Q

Locus

A

Specific location along the length of a chromosome where a gene is

169
Q

Meiosis

A

Cell division to make haploid gametes

170
Q

Monohybrid Cross

A

Cross between monohybrids (heterozygotes)

171
Q

Parental Gametes

A

Gametes that share the same genotype as the parents. Results when crossing over does NOT occur.

172
Q

Ploidy

A

The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, or in the cells of an organism. ex: haploid, diploid

173
Q

Punnett Square

A

Diagramatic device for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup

174
Q

Recessive

A

Alleles that must be inherited together (homozygous) in order to be expressed. Usually represented in a Punnett Square with lower case letters (bb, for example).

175
Q

Recombinant Gametes

A

Gametes that aren’t the same genotype as the parents. The result of crossing over.

176
Q

Unlinked Genes

A

Genes that are found on different chromosomes and segregate independently into gametes.

177
Q

Adaptation

A

Inherited characteristic of an organism that enhances their survival and reproduction in specific environments

178
Q

Allele Frequency

A

The relative frequency of an allele (variant of a gene) at a particular locus in a population, expressed as a fraction or percentage. Specifically, it is the fraction of all chromosomes in the population that carry that allele.

179
Q

Descent with Modification

A

Passing traits from parent to offspring, and this concept is one of the fundamental ideas behind Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.

180
Q

Differential Reproductive Success

A

The different amounts of success organisms have in a population of reproducing. As Dr. Decker says, “it just means that some are reproducing more than others.”

181
Q

Evolution

A

Descent with modification - a change in the genetic composition from generation to generation

182
Q

Gene Pool

A

The total genetic information in the gametes of all the individuals in a population.

183
Q

Heritable Phenotypic Variation

A

Amount of phenotypic (observable) variation in a population that is attributable to individual genetic differences

184
Q

Microevolution

A

The change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and genetic drift.

185
Q

Natural Selection

A

Process in which individuals who have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals BECAUSE of those traits.

186
Q

Analogous Structure

A

Shared features between species because of convergent evolution.
Structures share similar function but NOT similar ancestry.

187
Q

Artificial Selection

A

The process of modifying species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals possessing desired traits

188
Q

Binomial Nomenclature

A

a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages.

189
Q

Biogeography

A

Scientific study of the geographic distributions of species

190
Q

Comparative Anatomy

A

Study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. Serves as evidence for evolution; it indicates that various organisms share a common ancestor.

191
Q

Comparative Embrology

A

Branch of embryology that compares and contrasts embryos of different species. It is used to show how all animals are related. Many things are compared (such as whether or not the organism has a notochord or gill arches).

192
Q

Convergent Evolution

A

The independent evolution of similar features in different lineages (flying squirrel vs. sugar glider)

193
Q

Endosymbiosis

A

a type of symbiosis in which one organism lives inside the other, the two typically behaving as a single organism. It is believed to be the means by which such organelles as mitochondria and chloroplasts arose within eukaryotic cells

194
Q

Fossil

A

Remain or trace of an organism from the past

195
Q

Homologous Structure

A

Structure in different species that are similar because of common ancestry. ex: mammalian forelimbs

196
Q

Radiometric Dating

A

A method of dating geological or archeological specimens by determining the relative proportions of particular radioactive isotopes present in a sample.

197
Q

Strata

A

Layers of rock (singular stratum).

Can show fossil age (those on top would be younger than those on the bottom).

198
Q

Systematics

A

The branch of biology that deals with classification and nomenclature; taxonomy.

199
Q

Taxonomy

A

The classification of organisms.

200
Q

Transitional Form

A

Fossils or organisms that show the intermediate states between an ancestral form and that of its descendants. These provide an abundance of evidence for change over time.

201
Q

Vestigial Structure

A

Remnants of features that served a function in the organism’s ancestors (like leg bones inside of a whale).

202
Q

What do the PolyA Tail and 5’ Cap do?

A
  1. Facilitate export of mature mRNA
  2. Help protect mRNA from degradation
  3. Help ribosomes attach to the 5’ end

BIOL 1009 (7 decks)

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