Midterm 2 (Human Development)

Question 1

What is Human Development?

Answer 1

The scientific study of age-related changes across physical, cognitive, social and behavioural domains.

Question 2

What does Developmental Psychology focus on?

Answer 2

The study of how behaviour and mental processes change over the lifespan.
- examples of this is skills such as language and self-control development

Question 3

What is the Lifespan Perspective in Human Development?

Answer 3

Changes that happen throughout the entire human lifespan and must be interpreted in light of culture and context that they develop in
- this is the focus of development into adulthood and recognizes the changes throughout adulthood

Question 4

Define Post-hoc fallacy.

Answer 4

The false assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event.
- this fallacy leads to the beliefs that events are caused by each other when they can be found to be only correlated

Question 5

True or False: Correlation equals causation.

Answer 5

False.

Question 6

What are Bidirectional Influences in development?

Answer 6

This is the idea that two factors in our development play into each other. This is the idea that factor A influence factor B, however factor B will also influence factor A

Question 7

What are Critical Periods in development?

Answer 7

Specific periods in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence or absence of some particular kind of experience.

Question 8

What is a Sensitive Period?

Answer 8

A span of months or years during which a child may be particularly responsive to specific forms of experience.

Question 9

Name and Describe some of the myths about early experience. Describe the realities of each ones.

Answer 9

• infant determinism: this is the belief that exteremely early experiences are almost always more influential than later experiences in shaping human development
• the reality of the above belief is that adult and childhood experiences are both important.Also it is thought that experiences in adulthood can off set negative experiences from childhood
• childhood fragility: this is when children can be easily damaged by experience
• the reality of the belief above are that young children are very resilient

Question 10

What is the Nature-Nurture Debate?

Answer 10

The complex relationship and many difference factors between genes and environment.
* genetic makeup/factors can drive us to select and create particular environments, leading to the mistaken appearence of the pure effect of nature

Question 11

What is Gene-Environment Interaction?

Answer 11

Genetic susceptibilities interact with environmental experiences.
* the impact of genes on behaviour depends on the environment in which the behaviour develops

Question 12

Define Epigenome.

Answer 12

The sum total of inherited and acquired molecular modifications to the genome that leads to changes in gene regulation without changing the DNA sequence.

Question 13

What are Cohorts?

Answer 13

Groups of individuals who are born within a particular span of years and share the same historical experiences at the same point in their development

Question 14

What is a Cohort Effect?

Answer 14

An effect observed in a sample of participants resulting from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time.
- this can lead to us finding the ability to attribute differences to ages

Question 15

What is Cross-sectional research design? List its advantages and disadvantages

Answer 15

Investigates people of different ages at a single point in time.
* Advantages: convenient
* Disadvantages: this method can not use cohorts and aging affects individually

Question 16

What is Longitudinal research design? List the advantages and Disadvantages

Answer 16

Investigates development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time.
* Advantages: while watching aging unfold, we can understand its process (developmental effects)
* Disadvantages: this research designs causes limited knowledge of other cohorts, this is time and resource sensitive, leads us to believe correlation is causation, takes time to study

Question 17

What are the Three Stages of Prenatal Development and describe each of the processes?

Answer 17

• Germinal Stage - this is when the zygote begins to rapidly divides and implantation has occurred. Blastocysts are beginning to divide here
• Embryonic Stage - this is when the implantation stage ends and the foundational structures have built all of the parts of the body and the neural tube has been formed
• Fetal Stage - this is the stage from stage 9 to the process of birther. During this time, the fetal increases in size and organ systems have development

Question 18

What is a Teratogen?

Answer 18

Environmental factors that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development.
* this includes certain illnesses, consuming drugs or alcohol, or certain conditions (depression)
* depending of the timing of exposure, it will impact the development of certain structures (such as the brain)

Question 19

Define Preterm Infants.

Answer 19

Born live before 37 weeks (closer to the mark of 9 months rather than the “standard” 9.5 months)

Question 20

What is the viability point for preterm infants?

Answer 20

23-25 weeks.
* this is the soonest that a child can be born prior to the nine month marker where they have a chance of survival
* these children tend to have under developed bodily systems

Question 21

What are the types of Motor Behaviours?

Answer 21

• Reflexes
• Bodily motions resulting from self-initiated force.

Question 22

What is Puberty?

Answer 22

Collective term for the changes that result in sexual maturity.

Question 23

What are Primary sex characteristics?

Answer 23

Growth/development of sex organs.

Question 24

What is Menarche?

Answer 24

The beginning of the menstrual cycle.

Question 25

What is Spermarche?

Answer 25

First ejaculation.

Question 26

What is Cognitive Development?

Answer 26

How we acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, and remember over time.

Question 27

Define Assimilation.

Answer 27

The process of using schemes to interpret events or experiences.

Question 28

What is Accommodation?

Answer 28

Changing our schemes as a result of new information.

Question 29

What are the four stages of Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory?

Answer 29

* Sensorimotor Stage * Preoperational Stage * Concrete Operational Stage * Formal Operational Stage

Question 30

What is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory?

Answer 30

Complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions rather than in an individual’s private explorations.

Question 31

What is Scaffolding?

Answer 31

Learning guided by an adult or more knowledgeable child who structures learning according to a zone of proximal development.

Question 32

What is Theory of Mind?

Answer 32

The ability to reason about what other people think and believe.

Question 33

What is the Personal Fable in adolescence?

Answer 33

Feelings of profound uniqueness and of living out a story that others are watching.

Question 34

What is Attachment?

Answer 34

An emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest.

Question 35

What are the types of Attachment identified in the Strange Situation?

Answer 35

* Secure * Avoidant * Ambivalent * Disorganized/Disoriented

Question 36

What is the 'Sandwich generation'?

Answer 36

Middle-adults often have to help their aging parents while raising their own children.

Question 37

What often emerges in school-aged children?

Answer 37

Best friend relationships ## Footnote These relationships can be significant in the social development of children.

Question 38

How are friendships often characterized in school-aged children?

Answer 38

Gender segregated ## Footnote Boys and girls tend to form friendships primarily with their own gender.

Question 39

What do adolescents seek in their relationships?

Answer 39

Autonomy and challenge parental authority ## Footnote Conflict during this stage is considered normal.

Question 40

When is peer relationship significance at its peak?

Answer 40

Adolescence ## Footnote This is a critical time for identity formation and validation through peer groups.

Question 41

What type of relationships begin to emerge during adolescence?

Answer 41

Romantic relationships ## Footnote These relationships are important for social development.

Question 42

What generally increases in adulthood regarding marriage?

Answer 42

Marital stability and satisfaction ## Footnote This often correlates with maturation and a decline in child-rearing responsibilities.

Question 43

What is the 'sandwich generation'?

Answer 43

Middle-adults helping both their children and parents ## Footnote This generation often faces unique challenges balancing these responsibilities.

Question 44

What is the 'empty-nest' phenomenon?

Answer 44

Parents experiencing a home without children ## Footnote This can lead to various emotional responses.

Question 45

What is 'failure-to-launch'?

Answer 45

Adult children returning to live with their parents ## Footnote This creates a 'revolving door' effect in family dynamics.

Question 46

What is the typical experience of most grandparents?

Answer 46

Positive experiences ## Footnote Grandparents are often welcomed into their children's lives.

Question 47

How do social circles change in adulthood?

Answer 47

They become smaller ## Footnote However, relationships can be of high quality.

Question 48

What is associated with better physical and psychological outcomes?

Answer 48

A larger social network ## Footnote Quality of relationships is also crucial.

Question 49

What does Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory propose?

Answer 49

Personality development results from the interaction between internal drives and cultural demands ## Footnote This occurs across eight stages or crises.

Question 50

What is a psychosocial crisis?

Answer 50

A challenge faced at each stage of development ## Footnote Normal development must consider cultural contexts.

Question 51

What is developed during the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage?

Answer 51

Will ## Footnote Focus on physical/motor abilities and self-care.

Question 52

What is the key focus during the initiative vs. guilt stage?

Answer 52

Purpose ## Footnote Children learn goal-oriented behavior and assertiveness.

Question 53

What is learned during the industry vs. inferiority stage?

Answer 53

Competence ## Footnote Involves school-based skills and social/cultural skills.

Question 54

What develops during the identity vs. role confusion stage?

Answer 54

Fidelity ## Footnote This includes the development of sexual, social, and occupational identities.

Question 55

What is the focus of the intimacy vs. isolation stage?

Answer 55

Love ## Footnote This stage emphasizes the development of intimate relationships.

Question 56

What is generativity vs. stagnation about?

Answer 56

Care ## Footnote Involves raising children and caring for others.

Question 57

What is reflected upon during the integrity vs. despair stage?

Answer 57

Wisdom ## Footnote This involves self-acceptance and integration of earlier stages.

Question 58

What is the idea of nature via nurture in terms of human development

Answer 58

* this is the idea that different biological dispositions can lead to the selection of particular environments * this is further the idea that environment are responsible for a certain trait

Question 59

Define gene expression

Answer 59

the process of genes turning on and off due to environmental experiences or environmental events

Question 60

List the three research designs that lead to age-related changes

Answer 60

* cross-sectional research design * longitudinal research designs * cohert-sequential research design

Question 61

Describe the cohort - sequential research design

Answer 61

- this is when several age cohorts are followed and tested through the combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs

Question 62

What are blastocytes

Answer 62

* A body of identical cells that does not yet contain a particular function

Question 63

Describe the brain development

Answer 63

* towards the end of this process, neurons sort them selves out * brain and spinal cord have developed * this development happens during the embryonic stage (18th day after fertilization to the 6 month of preganency)

Question 64

What is fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Answer 64

* a condition resultign from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure

Question 65

What is a genetic disorder

Answer 65

* random errors in cell division happen during prenatal development or that are genetically passed on