midterm 2 ch 9

Question 1

Examples of pathogens
Physical / chemical __________
__________ immunity
__________ immunity
__________ system
__________
__________ donation
Problems with the __________ system

Answer 1

barriers
Innate
Adaptive
Lymphatic
Immunization
Organ
immune

Question 2

Examples of potential invaders
Viral: _____________, __________, ____________, __________, _________
Bacterial: __________, __________, __________, ______________ infections, _________
Protist: ________, ____________________
Fungal: ___________, _______________
Animal: _________________, ___________

Answer 2

Influenza (flu), common cold, chicken pox, HIV/AIDS, COVID 19
Tuberculosis, salmonella, cholera, urinary tract, gonorrhea
Malaria, amoebic dysentery
Athlete’s foot, yeast infection
Intestinal fluke, whip worm

Question 3

Whip worm
Burrows into the _________ surrounding the _______________.
May cause
__________ bleeding -> __________ and __________ -> ___________

Answer 3

tissue, large intestine
rectal, anemia, diarrhea, dehydration

Question 4

Intestinal Fluke
Attaches to the _________ of the ________________, causing sores and inflammation.
Severe infections can cause _____________________.

Answer 4

inside, small intestine
nutritional deficiencies

Question 5

Defenses against invaders
_____________ surface barriers (1st line of defense). Prevent __________ from entering our bodies.

Answer 5

Physical / chemical, pathogens

Question 6

Defenses against invaders
______________ defenses “_________________”(2nd line). Attack pathogens that enter the body, but do not recognize __________________, and are not important for _____________ immunity

Answer 6

Nonspecific, innate immunity
specific pathogens, long-term

Question 7

Defenses against invaders
_____________ defenses “__________ immunity” (3rd line) Recognize specific pathogens the body has been __________ to before, responsible or __________ immunity

Answer 7

Specific, adaptive
exposed, long-term

Question 8

Physical / chemical barriers: Skin
The ___________ consists of many layers of _________________ cells, providing a good physical barrier preventing pathogens from entering the body.
pH of skin = _____: too _______ for many microorganisms
Resident, harmless ____________ on the skin’s surface may out-compete pathogens

Answer 8

epidermis, tightly-packed
5-6, acidic
bacteria

Question 9

Other physical / chemical barriers
Other protection where skin cannot be:
_______, saliva, mucus (contain ___________ that kill bacteria)
_________
Digestive ________
Resident bacteria produce ____________
___________
___________
_________________

Answer 9

Tears, lysozymes
Earwax
acids
vaginal acids
Urination
Vomiting
Defecation/ diarrhea

Question 10

Innate immunity: Neutrophil WBC’s
_______ of our WBC’s are neutrophils.
Attracted by ____________ released by bacterially infected or ____________ tissue, they leave capillaries, phagocytize (engulf)
bacteria and digest them with
________________
Dead neutrophils contribute to
_______

Answer 10

2/3
chemicals, damaged
lysosomes, pus

Question 11

Innate immunity: macrophage WBC’s
________ WBC’s become macrophages.
Also leave ____________ (like neutrophils), that phagocytize (engulf) _________, dead bacterial and tissue cells and dead neutrophils.
Macrophages release _________ chemicals (pyrogens) that trigger __________.

Macrophages also function as 
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ cells.

Answer 11

Monocyte
capillaries, bacteria
cytokine, fevers
antigen-presenting

Question 12

Innate immunity: fever
___________ the body temperature can create an unfavorable temperature for bacteria, so mild fevers (up to 39 degrees C) can be useful
Increases activity of _____________ and cells healing damaged __________.
High, sustained fevers can be dangerous, as they may lead to important proteins being ______________.

Answer 12

Raising
white blood cells, tissue
denatured

Question 13

Innate immunity: eosinophil WBC’s
Attacks invaders that are _______ (parasites like worms) by surrounding them and releasing digestive ___________ on them.

Answer 13

large
enzymes

Question 14

Innate immunity: _________ cell WBC’s
Recognizes our own cells that have become infected with viruses, and our own cells that have become cancerous and _____ them.

Answer 14

natural killer
kills

Question 15

Innate immunity: complement proteins
Present in ________ and ________ fluids.
Activated complement proteins:
-Attach themselves to __________
-They attract neutrophils and macrophages to _________ and ________ pathogens
-They help neutrophils and macrophages attach to __________ to _________ (engulf) them.

Answer 15

blood, tissue
pathogens
engulf, destroy
pathogens, phagocytize

Question 16

Innate immunity: complement proteins
Complement proteins form __________ _________ __________ that “punch holes” in bacterial cell membranes.
The water rushes through these holes into the bacteria (osmosis) and they ________.

Answer 16

membrane attack complexes
rupture

Question 17

Innate immunity: inflammatory response
Inflammatory response caused by _______ cells in ____________ tissue and basophils WBC’s, both of which release ___________ chemicals that cause inflammation.

Signs:
___________
___________
___________
___________

Answer 17

mast, connective
histamine

Redness
Warmth
Swelling (edema)
Pain

Question 18

Innate immunity: inflammatory response
1) ________ damage -> _______ released by basophils and mast cells (in connective tissue)

Answer 18

Tissue, histamine

Question 19

Innate immunity: inflammatory response
2) Histamine causes ________ to dilate, so more blood flows through them, thus the inflamed area becomes more red and warmer. ___________ temperature makes white blood cells, and cells involved in tissue repair, more active. More blood flow to the area means more __________ and _________ to white blood cells and cells involved with tissue repair.

Answer 19

arterioles
Increased
nutrients and oxygen

Question 20

Innate immunity: inflammatory response
3) Histamines also cause the spaces between ________cells to become wider. “Leaky” capillaries -> more nutrients, clotting proteins, complement proteins, phagocytic white blood cells escape capillaries into surrounding tissues (swelling). Clotting proteins “wall off” injured area.

Answer 20

capillary

Question 21

Innate immunity: inflammatory response
4) Swelling puts _________ on pain receptors. Also damaged tissue releases ___________ that stimulate pain receptors. Pain is useful: you know something is wrong, so you take care of yourself.

Answer 21

pressure, chemicals

Question 22

Adaptive immunity: lymphocyte WBC’s
_________: produce protein antibodies that bind to foreign antigens (surface proteins of viruses, bacteria, etc.)
__________ T cells: “touch kill” foreign cells, or our own cells that are virus-infected or cancerous

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ T cells: coordinate the immune response, by causing the cell division of the cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes.  

All are mostly found in the lymphatic 
system, especially lymph nodes.

Answer 22

B cells
Cytotoxic
Helper

Question 23

Adaptive immunity: key features
1) Targets specific _________ antigens (that you’ve been exposed to before): each B or T cell has proteins for 1 specific antigen (each B cell and each T cell produces different proteins).

Answer 23

foreign

Question 24

Adaptive immunity: key features
2) We have over 1 billion different B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes (high diversity), each of which is unique and targets a different antigen. So any foreign antigen that enters our body will have a __________ cell with matching proteins.

Answer 24

B and T

Question 25

Adaptive immunity: key features
3) During initial exposure to an antigen, we produce ___________ B and T cells. These lie in wait in our bodies, so that if we encounter the same pathogen in the future, we can mount a quick and overwhelming response, so we do not get sick again. This is the basis of long-term immunity

Answer 25

memory

Question 26

Adaptive immunity: B cells and antibodies
Each B lymphocyte cell produces one unique__________antibody.
We have millions of different B lymphocytes.
Each different antibody type can bind to a different antigen.
So we have B cells that produce an antibody that will bind to any foreign antigen that enters our body.

Answer 26

protein

Question 27

If one B lymphocyte binds to an antigen it ____________, forming effector B cells and memory cells just like it (same antibodies).

Answer 27

multiplies rapidly

Question 28

Effector B cells secrete antibodies into lymph (one cell can make _________ antibodies / sec.!), to bind to other pathogens with the same antigen. Lymph vessels joined to blood vessels, so they circulate there too

Answer 28

2,000

Question 29

_______________ cells: remain in the body for a quick, overwhelming response to future attack by the same pathogen (so you do not get sick again).

Answer 29

Memory B

Question 30

What antibodies do
Activate ___________ proteins
______________ bacteria or viral pathogens (prevent viruses from entering our cells, for example)
Signal _________ to engulf the pathogen

Answer 30

complement
Immobilize
phagocytes

Question 31

Each helper T and cytotoxic T lymphocyte cell produces one unique protein ____________.
We have millions of different T lymphocytes.
Each different protein receptor type can bind to a different antigen.
So we have T cells that produce protein receptors that will bind to any foreign antigen that enters our body.

Answer 31

receptor

Question 32

Macrophages engulf bacteria, virus, protist or cancerous cells and presents the cell’s antigens to T cells (helper T and cytotoxic T).
Virally-infected cells present antigens too.
Cytotoxic T cells If there is a match between the antigen and the protein receptor of a cytotoxic T cell, that T cell divides repeatedly, producing many copies of itself with the same protein receptor.
Some of these copies become effector cytotoxic T cells that touch kill anything with that antigen, others form memory cells to wait for future attacks.

Question 33

Antigen presented
to a T cell
(by a macrophage, or virally-infected cell).
If there is a match between the protein receptors of the T cell and the antigen, the T cells divide into more effector cytotoxic T and memory T cells with that receptor.

Question 34

Cytotoxic T cell recognizes a cell with specific foreign antigens, releases perforin proteins that “punch holes” in the foreign, virus-infected or cancerous cell.
They also release chemicals that lead to cell death by fragmenting the cell’s DNA (among other things)
It then moves on to kill other cells (with the same foreign antigens it recognizes).

Question 35

Helper T cells stimulate other immune cells:
Stimulates cell division of macrophages, cytotoxic T cells and B lymphocyte cells.
Without helper T cells the rapid division of effector B cells and effector cytotoxic T cells would not occur.
Therefore they are crucial to the overall immune response (HIV infects helper T cells, and disables the immune system).
Memory cytotoxic T and helper T cells: remain in the body for a quick, overwhelming response to future attack by the same pathogen (so you do not get sick again).

Question 36

There is a lot of time between when a pathogen first enters the body, and when antibodies are produced in large amounts, and effector cytotoxic T cells are produced.
During this time, you will be sick
Characteristics: lag time of 3-6 days for antibody production as more B and T cells develop into effector cells, peak antibody concentration at 10-12 days.
Memory B and T cells created for faster secondary response when exposed again.

Question 37

The second (and third, etc.) time you are exposed to the same pathogen, with the same antigens, memory cells encounter the pathogen quickly, and mount a quick overwhelming response that kills the pathogens before you feel sick.
Characteristics: lag time in hours, peak in days. Much greater antibody response

Question 38

Secondary immune responses occur much faster, and result in much higher antibody production

Question 39

Why can you get sick from the flu year after year?

Flu virus mutates -> new antigens = old memory cells do not work.
COVID is similar to this as well.

Why can you get a cold year after year?
Common cold caused by over 200 
different viruses

Question 40

Take up bacteria and other pathogens, transport them to lymph nodes.
At lymph nodes, macrophages engulf and destroy pathogens, present antigens to T cells.
B and T lymphocytes also in high density in lymph nodes, produce effector B cells, cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and memory T and B cells.
Lymph system joins with blood system, so antibodies and effector cells enter blood stream as well.

Question 41

Structure:
Blind-ended capillaries, but with larger inter-cellular gaps than blood capillaries (to take in bacteria)
Have one-way valves, like veins (not shown).
Contain lymph (plasma fluid, white blood cells, fats, fat-soluble vitamins, proteins)

Question 42

Lymph nodes:
Contain macrophages and lymphocytes
Spleen: Macrophages and lymphocytes for infections within blood. Macrophages here break down old red blood cells too.
Thymus gland: creates mature T lymphocytes

Question 43

Antibodies can cross placenta.
Antibodies, phagocytes, B and T lymphocytes are released in breast milk, in the first days after a child is born. These both give the child some of the mother’s immunity.

Breast milk also has all the nutrients the baby needs, and is easier to digest than commercial formula / cow’s milk.

Breast feeding is a good thing, particularly in the first week after birth.

Question 44

Against viruses, like: polio, hepatitis B, the flu, measles, chicken pox, genital warts, COVID – 19, etc.
Against bacteria, like: tetanus, whooping cough, pneumococcus, etc.
Exposure to dead or weakened pathogens  formation of memory B and T cells.
mRNA vaccines cause our cells to make the foreign antigen, then our cells present it formation of memory B and T cells.
You gain immunity without getting sick!
Mutating flu virus / COVID virus = new vaccine needed each year
Mutating HIV virus = no vaccine possible
Vaccination has wiped out, or nearly wiped out some diseases:
small pox, polio and it saved many people’s lives during COVID

Question 45

Be sure to follow your doctor’s recommendations for your child’s vaccination.

Vaccinations save lives!

Note: there is NO link between vaccination and autism.
Vaccination is safe. 
Not vaccinating your child against potentially fatal diseases is definitely NOT safe.