Midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
what is a gene
A
The fundamental Unit of heredity
2
Q
what is genetics
A
The study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms
3
Q
What is a genome
A
A complete set of genetic information in an organism
4
Q
What is a genotype
A
Genetic makeup of an organism
The single set of genes that determine the phenotype
5
Q
What is a phenotype
A
The observable characteristics of an organism
6
Q
Can traits be environmentally influence
A
Yes, genetic mutation along early life infection can cause autism
7
Q
What is the blending hypothesis?
A
The genetic material from two parents one together
8
Q
What is particulate hypothesis?
A
The theory that parents pass on discrete heritable units
9
Q
What are four advantages of using pea plants in Mendel’s experiments?
A
They’re available and many different different varieties
Short generation time
Large number of offspring
Mating can be controlled
10
Q
What are characteristics?
A
General observation, i.e. the flower colour
11
Q
What is a trait?
A
Each variant for a character
Purple white
12
Q
What is the stigma in a plant?
A
A female reproductive organ
Receives pollen
13
Q
What is the statement in a plant?
A
The male reproduction organs, A combination of the anther and the filament
14
Q
What holds the pollen in a flower?
A
The anther, the filiment holds the anther
15
Q
What is self fertilization?
A
Reproduction using own pollen
16
Q
What is cross pollination
A
Using pollen from a different flower
17
Q
What are true breeding plants?
A
Plants that always produce identical offspring
18
Q
What is a heritable factor?
A
Genes
Heritability of a trait can be masked through generations
19
Q
What is a heritable factor?
A
Genes
Heritability of a trait can be masked through generations
20
Q
What is a dominant trait?
A
Trait that will show so long as one dominant allele is present
21
Q
What is a recessive trait?
A
A trait that requires both recessive alleles to be present in order to be seen
22
Q
What are four concepts that explain Mendels three to one ratio
A
Alternative versions of genes for variations and inherited care(genes)
For each character organism inherit two copies of a gene one from each parent
Two alleles differ than the dominant allele determines the organisms phenotype
The two alleles trait segregate during myosis. This is the law of segregation.
23
Q
What are four concepts that explain Mendels three to one ratio
A
Alternative versions of genes for variations and inherited care(genes)
For each character organism inherit two copies of a gene one from each parent
Two alleles differ than the dominant allele determines the organisms phenotype
The two alleles trait segregate during myosis. This is the law of segregation.
24
Q
What is the law of segregation?
A
To alleles for a heritable trait segregate during gambit formation and land in different gamEtes
25
What is a homozygous trait
Same alleles
26
What is a heterozygous trait
One of each dominant and recessive allele
27
what is a testcross
crosses and unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive genotype
28
what is a monohybrid cross
cross of only one character
29
what is a dihybrid cross
cross of two charisterics
30
do alleles assort into gametes dependently or independently
he did a dihybrid cross and found that it is independently assorted
31
what is gene linkage
genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together
32
What are Mendel's laws of inheritance
Law of segregation
Law of independent assortment
33
What is the law of independent assortment
each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other during gamete formation
34
what is pleiotrophy
when one genome can produce multiple phenotypes
35
what is complete dominance
either one phenotype or the other
recessive allele only shows when it is homozygous
36
what is polydactaly
a genetic disorder that presents 6 fingers
is a dominant trait
37
what is incomplete dominance
f1 generation is a mix of both parental varieties, the parental phenotypes can reappear after generations.
38
what is codominance
2 dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate ways
(spots and stripes)
39
What is a sex-linked gene
a gene located on a sex chromosome
40
what are y linked genes
genes on y chromosomes
only one allele is present (male0
41
what are x linked genes
In females acts the same as regular genes
in males only one is required
42
what is a pedigree
a family tree tracing interrelationships across generations
43
what is phenotypic plasticity
ability for one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different enviroments
44
what is gene espression
a process by which DNA directs protein synthesis
45
what is transcripption
the synthesis of mRNA using DNA
46
What is translation
The synthesis pf a polypeptide using the mRNA
47
What is Optogenetics
A technique used in neuro science to control neuron activity using light
48
are opsins
light controlled protein channels
49
What is Chemogenetics
Specific drugs are used to activate DREADDS within target cells to control neural actiivity
50
What is evolution
A change in gene frequency within a population over many generations that adds a fitness advantage.
51
Who was Aristotle
He seen species as fixed and unchanging
He developed scala Nature
52
What is Scala Nature
Aristotle arrangement of life forms based on complexity
53
Who was Carlos Lnneaus
He sought to classify life diversity
he classes simular things into groups
54
Who was Erasmus Darwin
Published first formal theories of evolution - Zoonomia
55
Zoonomia
first formal theory of evolution
56
Who was James Hutton
He proposed the principle of Gradualism
Proposed that the earth may be millions of years old
57
What is Gradualism
James hutton
the throey that the earth gradually underwent changes .
58
Who was georges couvier
Developed paentology
proposed that fossils were the remains or traces of past organisms
Strata
Believed in catastrophism
59
What is strata
new layers of sediment compressed into new layers of rock
60
What is catastrophism
the idea that earth has been shaped by sudden short-lived events
61
Who was Charles Lyell
Authorised principles of geology and proposed the principle of uniformitarianism
62
what is uniformitarianism
the idea that events occour on earth at the same rate they always have
63
Who was Mary Anning
Fossil collector, dealer , and palentoligst
significantly advanced our understanding of extinction
Proposed that species who cannot keep up with the changing earth go extinct.
64
Who was Thomas Malthus
English Economest that wrote Essay on the principle of population
Populations cannot grow forever they will run out of food
65
Who was jean Baptiste Lamarck
First to propose how life changes over time
66
What were Jean Baptiste Lamaracks 2 ideas
1) Use and disuse : body parts that were not used were lost, and those that were used grew
2) Inheriance of acquired chafisterocs: could pass modifications to their offspring.
67
What is Epigenetics
Modifacation of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself
Chamge on DNA function not sequence
68
What is DNA Methylation
Can decrease gene expression
can be a cause of stress
can be passed to offspring
69
what is histone modification
post translational modifications to histones
70
What is microRNA
non coding RNA that can bind to MRNA and prevent its translation
71
what is DNA Acetylation
Higher levels of transcription
72
Who Was Charles Darwin
Set sail to explore life on the HMS beagel
Described Natural selection
73
The Galapagos Islands
Group of islands near the equator
most species are unique to there
74
Who was Alfred wallace
Wrote to darwin speculating natural selection
Defended darwins hypotiesis
75
What was darwins idea (3)
1) Through natural selection an an ancestorial species can give rise to 2 more more decedents
2) could be caused if one population is fragmented into several isolated invirments
3) One species radiates into many species as the populations adapt over many generations to different enviroments
76
what is adaptive radiation
Over time one species can adapt to many due to environmental factors
77
What did Darwin observe on his trip
- Indivi=uals in a population vary in their traits
- environments are unequal
- resources are unequal
- a population can produce more offspring than will survive to reproduce
- species are well fitted for their environment.
78
what is natural selection
The process by which indivisuals within a population possess certain traits that allow them to reproduce more often
79
who was Alfred russel wallace
father of Biogeography
Conceived the theory of evolution
80
What were darwins 3 conditions for evolution by natural selection
1) variation in a trait must exist between individuals in a population
2) traits must be at least partially heritable
3) traits result in different fitness outcomes that are not random.
81
What are 4 lines of evidence that support evolution
Homology
Direct observation
The fossil Record
Biogeography
82
What is homology
similarity because of a common ancestor
can have different function with simular structure
83
Homologous structures
Simular in structure nut not in function
84
Vestigial Structure
remnants of features that served a function in the organisms ancestors
85
Conserved physiological process
simular pathways and responses because of common ancestors
cascading stress responce
86
Conserved and repeating Genes
homologous genes, organisms with a common ancestor share some genes
87
Psudogenetics
genes that stay in the same genome but have lost at least some functionality
88
Ontogeny
Developmental
89
Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
develop from the same embryotic state
90
Shared features of all chordates
-Notochord
-Pharyngeal slits
-Endostyke (thyroid)
- dorsal hollow nerve chord
- Post-anal tail
91
Boldness
reflects an individual's propensity to take risks
92
Neopheilia
Reflects an individual's willingness to engage with novel stimuli or objects
93
exploration
The measure of activity tied to gathering information and the ability to disperse
94
Fossils
Remains or traces of organisms from the past
found in sedimentary rock appears in layers of strata
95
What did organisms likely need, to be preserved as fossils?
Lived where sediments were deposited
Died in anoxic conditions
Had mineralized body parts
were present in great numbers
96
What does the fossil record provide evidence of
- origin of new species
-the extinction of species
-changes over time
97
what is Tiktaalik
fossils in the transition from water to land
had gills
lied in shallow water
crawl
98
What is Archaeopteryx
fossils in transition from dinosaurs to birds
toothed beak
wing claw
long tail
99
What is Ambulocetus
Transitional fossils between land mammals and whales
100
What is Biogeography
the study of the geographic distribution of species
101
What was Pangea
earth initial supercontinent separated by continental drift
102
endemic
Species are species not found anywhere else in the world
103
Biological Fitness
the ability to survive to reproductive age, find a mate, and produce offspring that will then survive to reproduce.
does not mean live longer
104
Adapted
better suited to its environment
105
what is Evolution in short
Descent with modification
106
What is the longer description of evolution
a change in gene frequency within a population over many generations that confers a fitness advantage.
107
What is Directional selection
pushes a population in one direction
better suited for that environment
108
what is disruptive selection
pushes a population in 2 directions
possibly leads to 2 species
109
What is stabilizing selection
Maintains the norm
becomes more specific
110
Key points of natural selection
- Individuals do not evolve, populations evolve
- can only increase or decrease heritable traits that very in a population
- which traits are favoured depends on the environment
-natural selection always increases fitness
- natural selection alone decreases genetic variation.
111
what are 5 mechanisms of evolution
- natural selection
- artificial seleceion
- genetic drift
- Gene flow
- Mutations
112
What is genetic drift
Changes in allele frequencies accross generations due to chance events
-bottleneck event
- founder effect
113
What is the bottle neck effect
a sudden change in the environment that durrastically reduces the population size.
by chance alone certain alleles may be misrepresented.
114
What is the founder effect
when a few indviduals become isolated from a larger population, the smaller population would have a smaller gene pool.
115
what is gene flow
the transfer of alleles into or out of a population
tends to increase genetic variation
can increase or decrease fitness
116
What are mutations
changes in one or several genes that can be transmitted to subsequent generations
can increase genetic variation
good or bad
117
what is a population
A localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
118
Five conditions for hardy weinberg equilibrium
- no mutations
-random mating
-no natural selection
-extremely large population size, no interbreeding
- no gene flow
119
What does Hardy Weinberg state
Allele frequencies in a population will not change from generation to generation.
120
What are the hardy weinberg equations
p2+2pq+q2=1
p+q=1
p = dominant allele
Q = ressesive allele
121
What is ecology
The scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment, includes biotic and abiotic
122
what is a biotic factor
a Living interaction
123
What is abiotic fator
a non-living factor
124
Who is Ernst Haekel
defined ecology
"it is the economy of nature"
125
Ecological interactions cause What kind of change
Evolutionary change
126
What is organismal Ecology
How organisms structure, physiology, and behavior meet environmental changes.
127
what is the law of toleration
distribution and abundance of species dependens on deviation between local conditions and optimal conditions for species
128
What is the Niche
Set of resources and conditions under which an organism can survive and reproduce
129
what is competitive exclusion
two species which compete for the same limited resources cannot coexist
130
how does coesistance of species exist
neiche segregation
131
what is population ecology
Focuses on factors affecting a population size over time
132
what is a population
group of individuals of the same species capable of interberrding
133
What accounts for the growth rate
+births
+ immigration
-deaths
-emigration
134
what are limiting factors
the resources and environmental conditions that affect the growth of a population
135
what is the food shortage hypothesis
when organisms overexploit their food supply and die out
Bottom up
136
what is dispersal
the movement of indididuals away from centers of high population density.
136
What is the species range
The geographic area over which all the individuals of that species live
136
what is a predation hypothesis
when predators overexploit their prey
Top down
136
What is the home range
The area in which an animal lives and moves around on a periodic basis
137
what is community ecology
examines the effects of interspecific interactions interactions on community structure and organization.
138
Community
Group of populations of different species in an area.
139
What is competition
Both organisms compete for the same resources, they share niche space.
140
What is a realized niche
the space the organism can occupy considering other organisms
141
What is a fundamental niche
the space an organism can take up in theory of the niche
142
Predation
Somebody wins and somebody loses predetor+prey
143
What is herbivory
Predetor+prey with a herbivoires
144
What is Parasitism
one has positive outcome and one has a negative
145
What is Mutualism
Both organisms benifit
146
What is obligate mutualism
Need each other to live
147
What is facultative mutualism
Both species can survive independently
148
what is commensalism
One species is benifited, one is neutral
149
What is ecosystem ecology
the integrated study of biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem
150
What is an Ecosystem
all of the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact
151
What is Landscape (Seascape) ecology
focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems
152
What is a landscape/seascape
a mosaic of interconnected ecosystems
153
what is Global Ecology
Examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the biosphere
154
What is a biosphere
the sum of all of the planet's ecosystem
155
What is the human-driven climate change
greenhouse gas effect, associated with human practices increasing the amount of carbon in the atmosphere.
156
What was the cause of the Ordovician event
Weathering of the applications altering atmospheric and ocean chemistry
157
What caused the Devonian event
Global cooling is possibly tied to the diversification of land plants drawing down CO2
158
What caused the Permian event
Global warming, elevated H2S and CO2
159
What caused the Triassic event
Elevates atmospheric temps which increases global temperatures
160
What caused the Cretaceous event
A large impact caused large cloud cover and rapid cooling.
161
what are the most critical drivers in declining habitat types
Temperature and Precipitation
162
What were the most likely organism classes to be affected by extreme heat events
Amphibians and reptiles
they live within smaller temperature ranges
163
What is Gross Primary Product (GPP)
the total amount of chemical energy produced by photosynthetic life in an ecosystem
164
Enzymes
a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction
165
What is amalayse
In saliva
turns starch to suggar
166
What is trypsin
Turns proteins into amino acids
167
What is an endothermic Organism
Warm Blooded
168
What is an ectothermic Organism
cold-blooded
169
What are Oviparous organisms
Egg laying
170
What are Viviparous organisms
Live bearing
