Everything Else Flashcards
1
Q
What is a virus
A
Infectious
Obligate Intracellular parasite
Comprised of DNA or RNA
With protein coat and sometimes a membrane
2
Q
What does infectious mean
A
Viruses are pathogens
3
Q
What does obligate intracellular parasite mean
A
Viruses replicate only in host cells
4
Q
Facts about viruses
A
Sub microscopic
Do not grow or devide
Do not have ribosomes
Do not have metabolic pathways
5
Q
Are viruses alive ?
A
No
6
Q
What 5 things does something need to be considered alive
A
Energy processing
Growth and development
Response to environment
Regulation
Reproduction
7
Q
How many viruses are estimated to be on earth
A
10^31
8
Q
what types of cells do viruses effect
A
Animal, plants, fungi, bacteria
All types of living cells
9
Q
How many cells are estimated to be on earth
A
10^31
10
Q
Are viruses made of DNA or RNA
A
they can be made of either
11
Q
What is the protein coat called that surrounds the virus
A
Capsid
12
Q
What does a capsid do
A
encloses the viral genome; made of protein subnits called capsomeres
13
Q
do viruses have a viral envelope ?
A
sometimes
14
Q
what is the life cycle of a Virus
A
selects a host with receptors
inject viral DNA and capsid proteins
host enzymes replicate genome
host enzymes transcribe genome to make more proteins
proteins self assemble into viruses and can leave the cell
15
Q
What is a provirus
A
a virus whoms dna is incorperated into the host cells dna
16
Q
What is a retrovirus
A
injects rna that can be transcribed into DNA to join the DNA of the host cell. A provirus
17
Q
Lytic cycle of Phage
A
lyses host upon completion
18
Q
Lysonogenic cycle of Phages
A
Does not destroy host cell, imbeds into host DNA until trigger event
19
Q
what are the 3 shapes of bacteria
A
Cocci
bacilli
spirochetes
20
Q
what are cocci bacteria
A
spherical
21
Q
what are Bacilli bacteria
A
Rod- shaped usually alone
22
Q
what are spirochetes bacteria
A
spiral shaped
23
Q
what is grahm staining used for
A
classifying bacteria by cell wall composition
24
Q
what is grahm positive
A
cell wall has a large ammount of peptidoglycan
more vulnerable to antibiotics
VIOLET
25
what is peptidoglycan
polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh like layer outside of the plasma membrane
is the target of antibiotics
26
what is grahm negetive
low ammounts of peptidoglycan, outer membrane made of lipopolysaccharide that can be toxic
antibiotic resistant
RED
27
how does grahm staining work
peptidoglycan traps crystal violet which makes them appear violet
28
why is a capsule important in bacteria
- antiphagocytic - protects from being eaten
- helps adhere
- protects anaerobes from oxygen toxicity
-protects from viruses
29
What is obligate anaerobic bacteria
cannot breate oxygen
it will die
30
what is a facultative anarobeic bacteria
doesent need to breathe oxygen can live without
31
what is fimbre to bacteria
little projections used to stick to things or each other
can be used to create biofilm
32
what is a pili to bacteria
appendages that pull 2 cells together to allow DNA transfer
33
what is flagella
enables movement of bacteria
can move up to 50 micrometers/ sec
34
at is a negitive taxis in bacteria
a negative response
causes bacteria to move away from stimulus
35
what is a positive taxis in bacteria
a positive responce
causes bacteria to move towards the stimulus
36
what are special about some bacteria membranes
some can preform metabolic functions
areoboc prokaryote - respiratory
photosynthetic - thylakoids
37
3 key things about bacterial anatomy
less dna than eukaryotes
mostly a single circular chromosome
smaller outcast of DNA ( plasmids)
38
3 factors of bacterial genetic diversity
rapid reproduction
mutation
genetic recombination
39
how does bacteria reproduce
binary fission
asexual reproduction by seperation of the organism into 2 new genetically identical organisms
Little as 10 mins
40
what is genetic recombination in Bacteria
combinatio of dna from 2 sourcs - adds diversity
41
what methods contribute to recombination of bacterial dna
lateral gene transfer - movement of dna between organisms
transformation - absorbed DNA from surroundings
transduction - bacteriophage carry DNA from one DNA to another
conjugation - sex pillus
42
bacteria - plant mutualism
bacteria pulls nitrogen from the air and converts it to ammonia (NH3) for the plant to use
43
Bacteria - gut ( human) mutualim
Gut bacteria helps with digestgion of fiber
helps regulate immune system
produces vitimens
influence brain behavior
44
Bacteria - human paracitism
Lyme disease
only 15% of people show the rash
45
what is a MEGA plate
The microbial evolution and growth arena
46
when were archaea considered separate from bacteria
1977
47
why do we know so little about archaea
they are
difficult to grow in a lab
Difficult to sample in their natural environments
48
similarities between archaea and bacteria
anatomy
Reproduction and genetic diversity
49
How do Archea and bacteria eat
Autotrophs - produce their own nutrients
-Photosynthesis
-chemosynthesis
Hetertrophs
50
What are some similarities between archaea and eukarya
-several kinds of RNA polymerase
The initiator of protein synthesis is methionine
-introns in genes are present in some genes
- growth not inhibited by antibiotics
- histones can be present in DNA
51
how are archaea unique
their ability to olive in extreme enviroments
52
what is an extremophile
organism that exists in extreme conditions that most life cannot tolerate
53
what are acidophiles
organisms that can grow in highly acidic conditions (ph <3)
54
what are ARMAN archaea
closest known relative to the common ancestor of all life
-- discovered in 2006 in an acidic mine in california
55
What are Halophiles
organisms that can grow in extremely salty conditions ( 5-30%)
56
what are thermophiles
Archea that can grow in extremely high tempatures
57
what are methanogens
archaea that produce methane gas by preforming methanogeses
In deep water or in digestive tracts of animals
58
what is methane hydrate
a frozen mix of methane and water
is slowly released due to global warming
59
what percentage of mammels are either livestock or human
96%
60
is methane a greenhouse gas
yes
- 25% of global warming is due to methane from human acivities
--agraculture
--- mining. oil
---landfills and wastewater
61
what are tardigrades
microanimals ( not archea)
mostly microscopic
can go decades without water and food
can withstand really high pressure and tempature extremes.
( -272C - +151C)
62
what are protists
a diverse group of eukaryotes that do not fall within plants, animals, or fungi.
important primary producers
pathogens in some organisms
63
where do protists fall in domain eukarya
they are all the branches that are not plants, animals, or fungi
64
what are Eluglenozoans
Flagellates; can be free living or paracites ( including in humans ) ; unicellular
65
what are Forams
Unicellular; marine, psudopod structures
66
what are diatoms
Marine microalge; unicellular algae; generate 20.5% of oxygen
67
what are Ciliates
unicellular organisms; hair-like structures; found anywhere there is water.
68
what is algae
unicellular or multicellular: photosynthetic
69
what are Amoebas
Unicellular : can change shape; move via pseudopods
70
how are protists classed
used to be a kingdom but now are the extras.
polyphyletic
71
what are supergroups
believed to be monophyletic
shifting from 4 to 6
all protists plus animals, plants, and fungi
72
what are the 4 supergroups
Excavata
SAR Clade
Archeaplastida
Unikonta
73
what is the supergroup Excavada
unicellular, free-living and symbiotic forms; 2 or more flagella; feeding groove "excavated" from one side; mostly heterotrophic.
74
What is the supergroup SAR clade
Stamenophile, alveolates, rhizarians
uni and multicellular
autotrophs, heterotrophs, and mixotrophs
75
what is the supergroup Archeaplastida
Includes red, green alge and land plants
green algae descendants
76
what is supergroup Unikonta
includes clades:
Ameobozoans (slime molds)
Opisthokonts ( animals,fungi, related protists)
77
what are the 6 supergroups
Excavata
Chromalveolata
Rhizaria
Archeaplastida
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
78
What is Supergroup Chromalevolata
From SAR clade
Stramenopiles and Alveolates
79
What is supergroup Rhizaria
From SAR clade
separate supergroup
80
What is supergroup Amoebozoa
From uikonta
81
What is supergroup Opisthokonta
From unikonta
82
What are Photoautotrophs
Plant like protists
Produce own food
83
at are Heterotrophic protists
animal like protists
84
how do protists reproduce
Asexually - Binary fission
Sexually - Stressful situations - meiosis and fertilization
85
How are protists complex
They can react to stimulus
capable of evasive behaviours
86
Why are protists important primary producers
they use energy in sunlight to build organic molecules that form biomass
87
what performs 30% of the world's photosynthesis
Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, multicellular algae, and other protists.
88
what are diatoms
unicellular algae with 2 glass like walls of silicon dioxide
major component of phytoplankton
fossilized diatom walls compose diatomaceous earth
89
what are dinoflagellates
important priamiry producers
unicellular organisms with 2 flagella
abundant components of phytoplankton
can trigger red tides
90
what is upwelling
an increase of water temperature due to global warming that effects the transport of nutrients to phytoplankton
91
what is plasmodium
a gesun of paracitic protists
causes malaria
Transmitted by female mosquitos
feed on red blood cells
92
What are fungi
Unicellular or multicellular
eukaryotic
heterotrophic - absorb dissolved molecules
can be pathogenic
93
what is common of plants and fungi
many grow roots
cells have cell wall and a vacoule
sexual and asexual reproduction
produce a fruiting body
94
what is common of fungi and animals
heterotrophic
lack chloroplasts
produce chiten
store carbohydrate energy as glycogen
produce vitamin d when exposed to sunlight
95
what is unique about fungi
can reproduce via clonal budding or binary fission
grow as hyphae
96
what is chitin
hard shell of animals ( lobster shell)
97
what is hyphae
a continuous string of open cells that force new growth at the tips
98
How long ago did Fugi branch from animals
1-1.5 bya
99
how are fungi taxa distinguished
morphology
genetic similarity
ability to metabolize certain biochemicals
100
what are the 6 branches of fungi
Chytridiomycota
Neocallimastigomycota
Mucoromycota
Glomeromycota
Ascomycota
Basidomycota
101
what are chytridiomycota fungi
Chytrid fungi
earliest lineages
Microscopic with flagellum
aquatic but can live in wet conditions
mostly asexual reproduction through Zoospores
breakdown chiten and keratin - sometimes paracidic
102
what are neocallimastigomycota fungi
anarobic fungi
in digestive tract
first thought to be type of chytrid
microscopic with flagellum
asexual reproduction
breakdown cellulose - plant material
103
What is mucoromycota fungi
zygote fungi
many are molds or mycorrhizal
mostly terrestrial in or on decaying matter
reproduce asexually using sporangiospores: can change to sexually when environmental pressure
som are parasitic
104
what are glomeromyocota fungi
root symbiotic fungi
mycorrhizal fungi
terrestrial
reproduce asexually producing glomerospores and cannot survive without the roots of plants.
Produces arbuscular mycorrhizae.
105
what is ascomyocota fungi
Sac fungi
Largest phylum of fungi
presents an ascus, a microscopic structure where spores form
asexual and sexual reproduction
106
what is basidomyocota fungi
Club Fungi
True mushrooms
reproduce sexually via basidia- the site spores are produced
107
what is arbuscular mycorrhizae
A type of hyphae that interacts with the root cells of plants.
108
what is an example of single-celled fungi
chytrid and and anaerobic fungi
yeasts
makes alcohol and bread
advanced medical biology
109
what are some examples of multicellular fungi
largest - belongs to Armillaria ostoyae at 9km2
estimated to be 2400 years old.
largest fruiting body belongs to Phellinus ellipsoideus at 500kg
110
what are the 3 nutritional modes of Fungi
Parasitism - sac fungi, eats keriten and causes ringworm
Mutualism - zygote or sac that makes up lichen
Saprophyletic - decomposers
111
what are the enzymes that fungi use to digest their food
exoenzymes
112
what is the mycorrhizal network
an underground network of the hyphae of fungi joining with the roots of plants
113
whats an example of fungi in a mutualistic relationship
Lichens
partnership of fungi and algae/cyanobacteria
114
parasitic relationships involving fungi
moss on trees
pine needle rust
corn smut
white nose syndrome
115
how did fungi aid in the evolution of land plants
proto plants lacked roots
fungi can dissolve rocks to extracts minerals "biological weathering"
90% of all plants have fungal partners
116
What are plants
eukaryotes
form kingdom plantae
most multicellular
photosynthetic
117
what are the 2 major plant groups
vascular
non vascular
118
what are vascular plants
have a material transport system
have roots
reproduce sexually
119
what are non-vascular plants
no material transport system
no roots; rhiozoids
found in damp areas
reproduce asexually via spores or budding
120
what are two types of vascular plants
seedless
-lycophytes and pterophytes
seeded plants
- gymnosperms and angiosperms
121
what are bryophytes
ex. mosses
non vascular
no roots
develop spores
gametophyte dominant
122
what are pterophytes and Lycophytes
ex. ferns
vascular ( seedless)
develop spores
sporophyte dominant
123
what are gymnosperms
ex. conifers
Vascular (naked seeds)
seeds
sporophyte dominant
124
what are angiosperms
ex. flowering plants
Vascular (coverd seeds)
seeds
sporophyte dominant
125
What are examples of organs in plants
two or more types of tissues
Roots
Stems
Leaves
126
What are examples of tissues in plants
groups of cells that together preform a particular function
Dermial
vascular
ground
127
What are examples of cells in plants
parenchymal cells
collenchyma cells
sclerenchyma cells
xylem
phloem
128
what are the responsibilities of roots in plants?
Anchor plants in soil
absorb minerals and water
require carbs, can store starches
129
what is the radicle in plants
the first root to emerge from germinating seed
branches to form lateral roots
originates in the embryo stages of plants
130
what are the two types of roots in plants
taproots - one main vertical root with lateral roots
fibrous root system - many smaller roots with no main root
131
pro and cons of the taproot system ?
CON; more costly
PRO; allows for an increased height
132
pro and cons of the fiberous root system
PRO; easier to grow, less effected by grazing
CON; Reduced height
133
What are prop roots
Stabilise plants in loose soil or when they are too large
134
What are aerial roots
plants germinate in forest canopy and roots grow down trunk
135
what are pneumatophores (air) roots
allow roots to access oxygen in areas of high saturation.
136
what are green root
photosynthetic roots of plants that grow above ground.
137
what is the node of a stem
point at which leaves attach to stems
138
what are internodes of a stem
segments between nodes
139
what is the apical bud of a stem
the location where the shoot grows
top of the stem
140
what is the axillary bud of a stem
precursor of a branch
located at nodes
141
what ar types of underground stems in plants
bulbs
stolon/Rhizome
Tubers
142
what are bulb stems
underground stems that send out roots ans shoots
ex. onions, garlic
143
whar are Stolon/Rhizome stems
grow at soil surface ( stolon) or below (rhizome) that form roots at the nodes
runners
ex, strawberries
144
what are tuber stems
enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolen that specialize in storing carbs
145
what is the lamina of a leaf
The blade of the leaf that houses the bulk of the chloroplasts In the plant
146
what is the petiole of a leaf
The stalk of the leaf that attaches the blade to the stem at the node
non existant in grass
147
what is a simple leaf
a leaf with one blade and one petiole
148
what is a Trifoliate compound leaf
3 leaflets
3 petiolules
1 petiole
149
what is a Palmately compound leaf
more than 3 leaflets
more than 3 petioules
150
what is a pinnately compound leaf
a feather-shaped leaf
has a Rachis - a stem-shaped thing that connects all leaflets
has many leaflets
151
what is a bipinnately compound leaf
a large feather shaped compound leaf with multiple rachilla that connect to a central rachis
152
what is the dermal tissue in a plant
the tissue that covers and protects the surface of the plant
it prevents water loss and regulates gas exchange
waxy cuticle
Stoma or cork cells
153
what is a stoma
guard cell that regulates the flow of water and regulate gas exchange
154
what are 3 types of dermal tissue
epidermal cell
gaurd cell
cork cell
155
what is vascular tissue in a plant
tissue that transports food and water around the cell
provides structural support
156
what is the xylem
water conducter in a cell
transfers water up from roots to shoots
consists of tracheids ( connect at angles) and vessel ( connect via perpendicular filter) elements.
dead at maturity
157
what is the phloem
transports suggars from where they are made to where they need to be
seive cells lack all organells
158
what are the 3 types of ground tissue
parenchymal
collenchyma
sclerenchymal
159
what are parenchymal cells
spongey
filled tissue
forms the cortex in roots;mesophil in leaves;pulp of fruit
preforms metabolic functions and can store starch
160
what are collenchyma cells
support growing
high in cellulose
elongated cells found under the epidermis
living polyhedral cells that support young parts of the plant
161
what are sclerenchyma cells
main support cells
high in lignin: death at maturity
most rigid
162
what is ground tissue
pith
ground tissue that is internal to vascular tissue
cortex
ground tissue that is external to vascular tissue
163
where does photosynthesis occour in plants
chloroplasts located in parenchyma cells
164
what are the levels of organization in ecology
Biosphere
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
organisms
organs
tissues
cells
organelles
molecules
165
what is the male part of the flower called
stamen
166
what is a part of the stamen
anther and filament
167
what is the female part of the flower
carpal
168
what are the parts of the carpal
stigma
style
ovary
169
what are the 4 basic parts of a flower
sepals
petals
stamens
carpals
170
what is a sepal
multiple are called the calyx
form the outermost part of flower
protect bud of flower
most leaf like
171
what are petals
martiple are the carolla
colourful
attract polinators
172
what are tepals
when petals and sepals look the same
173
what is a cotyledon in angiosperms
seed leaves
provide nutrients to embryonic plants through germination
174
what is a monocot
1 cotyledon
175
what is a eudicot
>1 cotyledon
176
what are the charisterics of a monocot
paralell veins
scatterd vascular tissue
fiberous root system
pollen grain with 1 opening
petals in multiples of 3
177
what are the charisterics of eudicots
net like veins
arranged vascular tissue
taproot
pollen with 3 openings
petals in multiples of 4 or 5
178
what happens during photosynthesis
plants produce suggar and o2
plants use co2 and h2o
179
what are important minerals of plants
phosporous
potassium
sulfer
calcium
magneisum
180
what are macronutrients
essential elements neede in high quantities
carbon
oxygen
hydrogen
181
what are micronuteience
essential elements needed in smaller quantities
calcium
magnesium
chlorine
182
what are high and low affinity transporters
how efficient transporters are and difussing nutrience into root systems
183
what are the availabilities of potassium
soil solution K
exchangeable K
Fixed K
Mineral Kw
184
what is soil solution K
Dissolved in water available for plant uptake
185
what is Exchangeable K
can be traded from soil particles for other cations
186
What is Fixed and Mineral K
Trapped in clay or rock
needs to be released or weathered free
187
what form is nitrogen taken up by. plants
nitrite ( No2)
nitrate ( no3)
188
what is the apoplastic route of mineral transport
within the cell wall or extracellular space, includes dead cells
189
what is the symplastic route of mineral transport
through cells via plasmodesmata
190
what is the transmembrane route of mineral transport
through cells with repeated crossing of cell membranes.
191
what i the cartesian strip
a barrier that controls the flow of minerals in and out of the xylem
think blood brain barrier
192
how does water move up the xylem
when water leaves the stoma, more water is pulled via a sort of vacuum
193
What is the cohesion tension hypothesis
transpiration - provides the pull for the ascent of water
cohesion of water molecules transmits the pull the full length of the stem
adhesion of water molecules keeps water from falling back down
194
what is translocation
transport of the products of photosynthesis
195
what is a charophyte
freshwater green algae
196
what is the tolerance range
the range that an organism can survive in
197
what is the optimal range
the range that the organism prefers/ thrives in.
198
what were the first land plants
nonvascular
they had no roots and needed to grow on or near water
199
what are benifits of plants moving to land
unfilterd sunlight
more co2
less herbovoires
more minerals
200
what were challanges for plants moving to land
less water
more direct sunlight
lack of structural support
201
what is desiccation
removal of moisture
extreme dehydration
202
what is a waxy cuticle
a waxy coating around most exposed surfaces that plants developed to protect against evaporation
203
What is a stoma or Gaurd cells
cells that open and close guarding the cell from pathogens while allowing water to escape
204
what did plants develop to aid in water absorption after the development of the waxy cuticle
roots
205
what is sporopollenin
a polymer that covers exposed zygotes and walls of plant spores
206
what did plants develop to safeguard offspring
pollen grains
seeds
cones
fruits
207
How did plants develop to combat gravity
vascular systems
Turgor pressure- hydraulic
Robust structure
208
what is turgor pressure
hydrostatic pressure
Ability to regulate the pressure of fluids in cells
209
what allows the flow of water into a vacuole
changes in osmolarity
210
What are 2 types of structural support cells
Collenchymal and sclerenchyma
211
What are auxins
a group of plant hormones that control the growth of plants
react to gravity
causes stem to grow faster and roots to grow slower
212
How do plants decide what direction to grow
Phototrophism - Causes auxins to cluster on the far side of the stem
Geotrophism- causes auxins to cluster on the bottom portion of organs to redirect to vertical growth
213
what happened in the carbonifeous era ( 359 mya)
extensive forrests of vascular plants form
first seed plants form
origins of reptiles
214
what happened in the Ordovican era ( 488mya)
Mariene algae abundant
colonization of land by diverse fungi, plants, animals.wha
215
what happened in the siluran era (444)
diversification of early vascular plants
216
what did non vascular land plants evolve to have
cuticles
stoma
Rhizoids
sporopollenin
217
When were non-vascular land plants dominant (the only )
ordovican period (over 40m year span)
218
How are vascular-seeded plants divided
Angiosperms and gymnosperms
219
What are angiosperms
evolved in cretaceous
Fruited seeds
have flowers
220
what are gymnosperms
evolved in triassiac
naked seeds
221
how did plants pave the way for humans
-modulated the global co2 and o2 levels
-stabilized colder climate
-increased the bio-available chemical energy (sugar) available
-produced soil
