Midterm

Question 1

Milgram Experiment

Answer 1

an experiment where people were instructed to shock people

shows obedience to authority
banality of evil
step by step process of evil <- gradual ratcheting
shows how a situation influences someone’s behavior

Question 2

Seminarians as Samaritans

Answer 2

nature of religious orientation (personal salvation vs. spirtual/moral values) was not determining factor in whether or not seminarians would help a man in the street

powerful predictor was whether or not seminarians were in a hurry

power of situation

Question 3

Fundamental Attribution Error/ Correspondence Bias

Answer 3

we falsely believe that other people’s actions are a reflection of their internal beliefs, rather than a result of the external environment

Question 4

Dispositions

Answer 4

internal factors- beliefs, values, personality traits

Question 5

Dick and Jane/Deng anf Janxing

Answer 5

focus on culture
individualistic vs collective identity

in the west <- focused on action and who people are as individuals

in the east <- focused on collective and who people are on the greater scheme of things

Question 6

Construal

Answer 6

everything we perceive is constructed aka not an objective view of reality

there is bias and fabrication/construction to everytihng we see

an individual’s subjective interpretation of a stimulus

we never have the complete picture of something… using construal…. we form a interpretation of the world around us

Question 7

Schemas

Answer 7

stored representations of numerous repetitions of highly similar stimuli and situations

they tell us how to interpret situations and how to behave in them

your schema for a library is very different than your schema for a nightclub

Question 8

Sterotypes

Answer 8

schemas of different types of people

Question 9

Automatic processing

Answer 9

nonconscious

implicit bias

people are often in the dark about how they reached a certain conclusion or why they think the way that they do

Question 10

Natural selection

Answer 10

traits, both physical and behavioral, that have been adapted to be most beneficial to reproduce in a given environment

Question 11

Parental Investment

Answer 11

different costs and benefits for nurturing offspring

females <- limited, metabolically taxing process

males <- easily expendable, just whipping their dicks around

Question 12

Naturalistic Fallacy

Answer 12

just because its a natural trait, doesn’t mean that it’s good

evolution is purely mechanical NOT moral

Question 13

Hindsight Bias

Answer 13

tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were.

Question 14

observational research

Answer 14

involves observing some phenonom at a close range

Question 15

archival research

Answer 15

looking through files and data

culture of honor research relied on FBI reports of homicides

Question 16

representative sampling

Answer 16

people in a survey must be representative of the population as a whole

best achieved through random sampling <- giving everyone in the population an equal chance to be chosen

Question 17

convenience sampling

Answer 17

biased in some way

contacting people as they enter a library, emailing frat + soritory members

produced skewed and inaccurate results

Question 18

correlational research

Answer 18

measure two or more variables and see if a relationship exists between then

Question 19

experimental research

Answer 19

tries to prove causation among variables/relationship

Question 20

third variable

Answer 20

can be another counfounding, third variable that explains the relationship between two variables

Question 21

self-selection

Answer 21

experimenter cannot control for every variable of a given participants

i.e. they can’t decide whether a participant is married or not… participants already come with those predetermined /self-selected variables

Question 22

longitudal study

Answer 22

collecting measures as different points in time

Question 23

natural experiment

Answer 23

naturally occurring event or phenononom that has similar parameters and manipulated variable as an actual experiment

i.e

people are happier after marriage than they were before

not bc they are just cheerful people, instead that marriage itself has something to do with it

Question 24

external validity

Answer 24

how well do the results of the study generalize to conditions outside of the lab/experiment

how closely the experimental set up resembles real-life situations

if researchers are testing whether watching violence on TV makes kids more aggressive, the TV programs that kids watch in the study should reflect TV programs that kids would actually watch in real life

Question 25

field experiment

Answer 25

way to test for external validity

test hypotheses in real-life situations rather than in the laboratory

Question 26

internal validity

Answer 26

likelihood that only the manipulated variable accounts for the results, rather than some extraneous factor such as participants failure to understand instructions

Question 27

common threats to internal validity

Answer 27

selection bias
- self-selection bias arises in any situation in which individuals select themselves into a group, causing a biased sample

differential attrition
- if many more people “drop out” from one condition than another … those who stay in the taxing condition are likely to be different from those in the other condition…. providing another factor that explains difference as opposed to condition itself

regression to the mean
- the tendency of results that are extreme by chance on first measurement—i.e. extremely higher or lower than average—to move closer to the average when measured a second time. Results subject to regression to the mean are those that can be influenced by an element of chance.

if you’re forced to repeat a terrible experience, it probably won’t be as bad as it was the first time… you’ll typically return to the mean or mid after something crazy happens

For example, if you give a class of students a test on two successive days, the worst performers on the first day will tend to improve their scores on the second day, and the best performers on the first day will tend to do worse on the second day.

Experimenter Bias
- experimenter can be biased if they know what outcome they want to measure/ results they want to see

Expectancy Effects
if the participants knows what’s being tested….they’re likely to act in ways according to what they’re being tested on

Question 28

reliability

Answer 28

extent to which participants receive the same score when tested with a conceptually similar instrument or when tested at different times

is a scale gonna say the same rock weighs 5 pounds everytime

Question 29

validity

Answer 29

degree to which some measurement predicts what its supposed to

is an IQ test a valid predictor of school grades?

Question 30

statistical significance

Answer 30

measure of probability that a result could have occurred by chance

Question 31

replication

Answer 31

repeating a study to see whether or not it can be duplicated

Question 32

social brain hypothesis

Answer 32

high correlation between mean group size and neocortex

abstract complex, thinking in the brain is driven by large group sizes and situations

Question 33

gestalt psychology

Answer 33

objects are not passive, but an active, typically unconscious interpretation of what that object represents

our perceptions of reality are heavily altered and biased <- visual perception included

Question 34

Levels of Analysis (list)

Answer 34

Mechanistic: stimulus -> brain -> response (PROXIMATE: close to behavior)

Ontogenetic: development (PROXIMATE: close to behavior)

Phylogenetic : evolutionary tree (both biological + cultural) (ULTIMATE: evolutionary)

Adaptive: why did this trait evolve? what is its function (ULTIMATE: evolutionary)

Question 35

levels of analysis example (why siblings don’t have sex with each other) mechanistic

Answer 35

the idea of having sex with a sibling triggers disgust

why?
major histocompability complex (MHC)
use of pheromones to determine how good you are at fighting off infection

if you share a MHC with someone, your children are likely to have duplicates won’t be able to fight off a high number of diseases <- less attraction (explains why siblings with similar biological makeup would not fuck w each other)

somebody with a more diverse HMC is gonna be more attractive to you because that means your children will be well protected and will have a diverse range of ways to fight off infection

Question 36

levels of analysis example (why siblings don’t have sex with each other) ontogenetic

Answer 36

Kinship Estimator:

if somebody is younger than you: Maternal Perinatal Association: if your mother gave birth to someone, you’re less likely to engage in incest with that person

if somebody is older than you: Coresidence Duration <- the longer you lived/grew up with someone in the same household, the less likely you are willing to engage in incest with that (Israeli kibbutz <- tight knit community)

increase in incest aversion and increase in altruism…. you don’t wanna have sex with these people… but you do want to be nice to them

Question 37

levels of analysis example (why siblings don’t have sex with each other) phylogenetic

Answer 37

some mutation in evolutionary history that makes humans and other species adverse to incest

Question 38

levels of analysis example (why siblings don’t have sex with each other) adaptive

Answer 38

if generation after generation you breed with close kin, you’re gonna have some fucked up mutated kids <- aka European royalty

Question 39

frog eyes levels of analysis adaptive

Answer 39

a frog eye does not work like a digital camera

its job isn’t to get a Clear picture of the world… its to catch flies

the frog’s eye tells the frog brains exactly what it needs to know

we need to think about the design principles that guide behavior/mechanism

Question 40

Levels of Analysis: Violence Behavior in the American South

Answer 40

archival data shows that southern states are more accepting of violence

potential explanations: temperature, violent history of slavery, poverty

white men have a culture of honor <- mafia, wild west
to maintain one honor of a male, defend your family or yourself with extreme violence

phylogenetic: Irish-scotts were constantly defending themselves from theft + violence <- Scott- Irish people from recent history have a history of military/violence <- those people went to the south

puritans came from different part of England <- and they didn’t have that type of violence when they came to northeast

adaptive: importance of personal reputation<- with lack of justice, you need to defend yourself

mechanistic: insults to honor <- driving high homicide rates is argument related murders // experiment where you have people bump into people and how dominant you act

for southern subjects, if you’ve been insulted… southerns will not make room for somebody in the hallway and assert their dominance

northerners don’t really give a fuck

for southerners… have stronger handshakes and more dominant demeanor

research cortisol + testornone levels <- southerners increase in the moment with cortisol and testostonre

ontogenetic: false marriage adduction, games they would play…kicking someone in the shins

Question 41

things distinctive in culture of honor

Answer 41

people live in clans
honor is important
men: insult
women: sexual fidelity
violations of honor are met w extreme violence
collective punishment: if you do something, your brother gonna pay for it
“blood feud” eye for an eye

small communities
more prevalent in herding than in farming communities

Question 42

Determinants of Significance

Answer 42

1. magnitude of effect
2. variability (are people consistent within groups)
3. sample size

we want low variability (small interval bars) and high magnitude of effect

Question 43

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 43

literally recording data that you’ve collected

Question 44

Inferential Statistics

Answer 44

is the findings from these data random or is this data saying something about the world

Question 45

Staistically Significant

Answer 45

how often was it that random chance produced the results we’ve observed

if its unlikely < 5%, these results usually demonstrate causality

Question 46

How experiments go wrong + solutions

Answer 46

1) false positives, false negatives
“File Drawer Effect” <- putting all failed experiments in drawer + only publishing experiments that worked even though these only worked by chance… not because they actually work

solution: pre-registration <- before they run an experiment, explain what data they’re gonna collect and what specific tests they’re gonna use to analyze it … were they expecting the results they got when they went into it?

2) Fraud : making shit up
Solution: replication

3) Experimenter Bias
Solution: blinding experimenters

4) Participant Bias
placebo effect, evaluation apprehension (not answering honestly), task demand (want to prove your theory or purposely want to disprove)
solution: natural experiments, covert experiments (people don’t know what’s being tested), measuring things you can’t fake (fMRI, reaction time, heart rate)

5) WEIRD people
participants are typically psych students, and experimenters are usually WEIRD too

optical illusion heavily based on cultural background

6) Design Artifacts + Interpretation
way we try to link data can have logical fallacies
between subjects vs within subjects (between the same person)
experiment: dictionary and how much you’re willing to pay
between subjects: more likely to pay for the one that’s new
within: if you see both dictionaries, most likely to pay more for the one with more words

Question 47

Research Ethics

Answer 47

institutional review board, cost/benefit analysis, informed consent, debriefing

Question 48

Universality of Emotions

Answer 48

people express the 6 main emotions (fear, anger, disgust, surprise, sadness, happiness) in similar ways across cultures

Question 49

Focal Emotions

Answer 49

emotions that are more common in everyday lives of the members of a particular culture and expressed with greater frequency and intensity

i.e anger in a culture of honor

Question 50

Display Rules

Answer 50

predicated by culture
determine how and when and who can express emotions

i.e. asian culture <- learn not to celebrate individual success or personal attributed

Question 51

Broaden and Build Hypothesis

Answer 51

idea that positive emotions broaden thoughts and actions, helping people build social resources.

i.e participants led to feel positive emotions thought of a wider range of ways to respond to different situations than participants who were feeling negative emotions

Question 52

social intuitionist model of moral judgment

Answer 52

the idea that people have fast, emotional reactions to morally relevant events, which influence the way they reason to arrive at a judgement of right or wrong

we have an immediate gut feeling about moral judgements

i.e seeing a story of incest and immediately being disgusteed even though nobody was harm and no children were reproduced

Question 53

moral foundations theory

Answer 53

a theory proposing that there are 5 evolved, universal moral domains in which specific emotions guide moral judgments

carel harm - concern for the suffering of others
fairness/cheating -
loyalty/betrsal - committments we make to groups
authority/subversion -
purity/degration (disgust)

Question 54

Affective Forecasting

Answer 54

predicting future emotions, such as whether an event will result in happiness or anger or sadness, and for how long

Question 55

immune neglect

Answer 55

tendency for people to underestimate their capacity to be resilient in responding to difficult life events

i.e people tend to overestimate how much a romantic breakup would hurt their feelings

Question 56

focalism

Answer 56

a tendency to focus too much on a central aspect of an event while neglecting the possible impact of associated factors or other events

i.e we tend to assume that once we land a dream job that we’ll be happy, but we fail to recognize how future heal problems, marital problems, difficulties with children can also negatively impact us

we always think the grass is greener on the other side…but its pretty much the same

people in the midwest think they’ll be happier in California…but rates of happiness are pretty much the same in both places

Question 57

duration neglect

Answer 57

giving relative unimportance to the length of an emotional experience, whether pleasurable or unpleasant, in judging and remembering overall experience

i.e whether a massage lasts 20 minutes or an hour has little effect on our recollection of pleasure.

Quality of experience and its peak and at its end

Question 58

commitment problem

Answer 58

our long term relationships require that we sacrifice for others even when we are tempted to do otherwise

expression of emotions signals our commitment to others and their wellbeing

emotions (like guilt) make us put our own interest aside for other people

oxytocin <- chemical that fosters comittment in long-term relationships
when voles get injected with oxytocin, they are more likely to pair bond w their sexual partners

Question 59

pluralistic ignorance

Answer 59

when people act in ways that conflict with their private beliefs because of a concern for the social consequences

i.e embarrassing to admit that you didn’t understand a lecture when you suspect that everyone else did, so you stay quiet.

Question 60

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 60

the tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen

i.e. a teacher who believes a student is capable is likely to act toward the student in ways that bring out the best in that student, confirming the teacher’s initial belief

kinda like a negative feedback loop

Question 61

primacy effects

Answer 61

a type of order effect: information presented first exerts the most influence

most often occurs when the information is ambiguous, so that what comes first influences how the later information is interpreted

i.e how many dates have you been on and then asking how happy you are

Question 62

recency effects

Answer 62

a type of order effect: information presented last has the most impact

typically happen when the last items come more readily to mind b/c information remembered obviously receives greater weight than information forgotten

Question 63

framing effect

Answer 63

the way that information is presented (either through wording or through order) can influence the way its processed and understood

Question 64

spin framing

Answer 64

varies the content of what is presented

i.e
a company who has higher quality but expensive will advertise their food as higher quality

a company who has lower quality but cheap will advertise their food as cost-effective and a meal of savings

i.e “illegal aliens” vs “undocumented workers”

Question 65

positive v negative framing

Answer 65

things can be emphasized that highlight either the good or the bad

75 % lean vs 25% fat
90% success rate vs 10% fail rate

both statments are true and accurate, but they carry different sentiments

Question 66

construal level theory

Answer 66

temporal framing

relationship between temporal distance and abstract or concrete thinking

psychologically distant events are thought about in abstract terms

actions and events that are temporally closer are thought about in more concrete terms

i.e. next month you’re helping a friend move, but this afternoon you’ll be bringing their chairs up the stairs

reason why you think taking a heavy course load is a good idea in the future, but then when you’re in it you have to actually face the consequences and execute the concrete details

Question 67

confirmation bias

Answer 67

tendency to test a proposition by searching for evidence that would support it

i.e
figure out whether working out the day before a match makes a tenis player more likely to win

participants only look at how much a tennis players wins after working out, they don’t look at how much a tennis player would lose after working out

searching for evidence that fits our beliefs

Question 68

bottom-up processing

Answer 68

individual forms conclusions based on their stimulus encountered in the environment

data-driven
from the ground (the environment) to the brain (up)

Question 69

top-down processing

Answer 69

theory-driven

individual filters and interprets new information in light of prexsisting knowledge and expectations

expectations guide attention

Question 70

priming

Answer 70

the presentation of information designed to activate a concept and hence make it accessible

a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus. Priming works by activating an association or representation in memory just before another stimulus or task is introduced.

seeing the words “self-confident + independent” or “stubborn, and conceited” influence whether you think somebody eating bugs is adventurous or reckless

Question 71

hueristics

Answer 71

mental shortcuts that provide efficient answers to common problems of judgement

perfumed quickly and automatically

Question 72

availability heuristic

Answer 72

process how frequent an event occurs based on how easily the event comes to mind

If we can vividly remember instances of that event, we deem it to be more common than it actually is

When asked if falling airplane parts or shark attacks are a more likely cause of death in the United States, most people would say shark attacks. In reality, the chances of dying from falling airplane parts are 30 times greater than the chances of being killed by a shark.
People overestimate the risk of shark attacks because there are far more news stories and movies about them. As a result, images of shark attacks are easier to bring to mind. If you can quickly think of multiple examples of something happening, then you are tricked into thinking it must happen often.

Question 73

representativeness heuristic

Answer 73

when we try to categorize something by how similar it is to our conception of the typical member of the category

Stereotyping sometimes occurs due to the representativeness heuristic.
For example, people with tattoos are often stigmatized and perceived as less professional in job interview settings. Under the representativeness heuristic, a hiring manager might perceive a candidate with tattoos as unsuited for the job.

Question 74

base-rate information

Answer 74

statistic used to describe the percentage of a population that demonstrates some characteristic

somebody is more likely to be a republican if the local population includes a lot of republicans… even if the person themselves may not “look” Republican.

Question 75

regression effect

Answer 75

extreme values of one variable to be associated with less extreme values of the other

tall parents tend to have tall kids, but not as tall as the parents themselves

locations with large numbers of accidents are likely to have fewer accidents afterwards, regardless of the presence of safety cameras

Question 76

regression fallacy

Answer 76

people think they’ve encountered some crazy phenonmon when its not the case (similar to regression to the mean)

people think that putting athletes on Sports Illustrated makes their career worse.

but that’s not the case. when they’re on the cover, they are at their peak. so they’re bound to perform worse…. not bc of sports illustrated but because that’s the way of life

Question 77

illusory correlation

Answer 77

the belief that two variables are correlated when in fact they are not

Question 78

likert scale

Answer 78

a numerical scale used to asses people’s attitudes

from strongly disagree to strongly agree

Question 79

response latency

Answer 79

the amount of time it takes to respond to a stimulus, such as an attitude question

the quicker it takes for you to respond, the stronger the attitude you have on the topic

the quicker you answer a question on the test, the more confident you are in your answer

Question 80

implicit attitude measures

Answer 80

used to assess attitudes when there is reason to believe that people wouldn’t share their true feelings or opinions

Question 81

cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 81

the theory that inconsistency between a person’s thoughts, sentiments, and actions creates an averse emotional state that leads to efforts to restore consistency

changing our cognition to make it more consistent with our behavior

people always try to rationalize their decisions

i.e after placing a bet at the track, people are likely to concentrate on the positive features of the horse rather than the negative features…. rationalization gives them better confidence in the decisions they made

Question 82

effort justification

Answer 82

the tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort, or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing

girls in the study… had a whole initiation process to get into a group discussion and the discussion turned out to be boring as fuck…. but because they put so much time into it… they rated the discussion more interesting than it actually was

i.e. people think Ikea furniture is worth more because they themselves had to put in the work to build it

Question 83

induced (forced) compliance

Answer 83

when people are induced to behave in a manner that’s inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or values that subsequently changes their values/beliefs

participants get a boring ass task.
rate the task as boring
then they’re asked by the experimenter to convince somebody else that the task is fun.
they get either $1 or $20

people who got $20 still rated the task as boring, they knew that the money they got was the reason why they were convincing other people to do the task

people who got $1 … didn’t have enough money to justify what they were doing… so they changed their beliefs and actually said that the task was more fun than they had originally stated

toys
if there was a severe threat to not playing with the toy, they explained the reason why they didn’t play w the toy was because of the threat….not bc they didn’t like the toy

but if they only got a mild threat and didn’t play with the toy, they needed to justify that they didn’t like the toy and that’s why they didn’t play with it

Question 84

self-perception theory

Answer 84

people come to know about their beliefs by looking at their behavior and the contact in which it occurred and inferring what their attitudes must be.

people don’t engage in an unpleasant state of dissonance, but that they’re just rationally inferring their attitudes based on their behavior

Question 85

system justification theory

Answer 85

the theory that people are motivated to see the existing sociopolitical system as fair, desirable, and legitimate

Question 86

terror management theory

Answer 86

the theory that people deal with the potentially crippling anxiety of death by striving for symbolic immortality in their culture and legacies

Question 87

inconsistency between attitudes and behavior should produce dissonance only when

Answer 87

• there is free choice
• insufficient justification for the behavior
• behavior has negative consequences
• consequences were foreseeable

Question 88

attribution theory

Answer 88

how people assign causes to the events around them

Question 89

causal attribution

Answer 89

linking an event to a cause, such as inferring that a personality trait is responsible for behavior

Question 90

explanatory style

Answer 90

a person’s habitual way of explaining events, typically explained along three dimensions:

internal/external, stable/unstable, global/specific

Question 91

Kelley Covariation Model

Answer 91

an attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way

consensus: whether most people would behave the same way or differently in a given situation

if there’s high consensus… it’s usually a result of the external factors … if everybody likes stats… its probably a good class… if only your friend likes stats… it’s more a reflection of who she is as a person rather than the class itself

distinctiveness:
whether a behavior is unique to a particular situation or occurs in many or all situations

does your friend like all classses in general, or does she just like her statistics class?

if there’s high distinctiveness… usually a result of external factors (situation) than the person

consistency:
whether an individual behaves the same way or differently in a given situation on different occasions

does your friend have favorable things to say about the stats class today only, or has she said good things about it throughout the semester

if there’s high consistency… easier to attribute behavior to either the person or the situation

if there’s low consistency, its hard to determine what is the cause

Question 92

situational attribution

Answer 92

when consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness are all high

Question 93

dispositional attribution

Answer 93

consistency is high, consensus and distinctiveness is low
more likely a reflection of the person than the situation

Question 94

discounting principle

Answer 94

the perceived role of a given cause in leading to a given effect is diminished when other possible causes for that event are also detected.

just because a person is nice in a job interview doesn’t necessarily mean that they are a nice person… in a job interview almost everyone is nice …. you discount/devalue that a person’s sunny disposition is a reflection of their character

Question 95

augmentation principle

Answer 95

idea that people will assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if other causes are present that normally would produce a different outcome

we can be more certain that a person’s actions reflect what they are really like if the circumstances would seem to discourage such actions.

if a person advocates for a position despite being threatened with torture for doing so, we can safely say that the person truly believes in that position

Question 96

counterfactual thinking

Answer 96

what coulda shoulda woulda happened “if only”

Question 97

emotional amplification

Answer 97

emotions are amplified if a situation “almost didn’t happen”

i.e people are more sad if somebody died in a car crash if they just changed their ticket the day before rather than if they always had that seat

almost didn’t die….sadness intensifies

second place almost won first but didn’t…mad
third place almost didn’t place but did… super happy

Question 98

self-serving attributional bias

Answer 98

the tendency to attribute failure and bad events to external circumstances while attributing success and other good events to oneself

view success internally and failure externally

Question 99

just world hypothesis

Answer 99

the belief that people get what they deserve in life

Question 100

actor-observer difference

Answer 100

an actor will tend to think that behavior is situational but an observer will tend to think that behavior is dispositional

we think our behaviors are dependent on the situation, but we think that Fiery’s behaviors are a reflection of who he is as a person

Question 101

culture and causal attribution

Answer 101

independent people are more likely to do fundamental attribution error than interdependent people

lower-class individuals tend to make more situation attributions as compared to middle-class and upper-class individuals

Question 102

working self-concept

Answer 102

we only bring parts of ourselves to light depending on the situation

notions of the self related to love are most likely to be Brought up with partners

notions of the self related to competition are most likely to be brought up during a sports match

Question 103

social comparison theory

Answer 103

people compare themselves to others to obtain an accurate assessment of their own opinons, abilities, and internal states

Question 104

contingencies of self worth

Answer 104

self esteem goes up in areas that matter to you, but drops when you stumble in these areas

Question 105

sociometer hypothesis

Answer 105

an internal marker of the extent to which a person is included or looked on favorably by others

need for belongingness

Question 106

self-enhancement

Answer 106

the desire to maintain, increase, or protect positive views of the self

Question 107

better-than-average effect

Answer 107

most people think they are above average on various personality trait and ability dimensions

Question 108

self-affirmation theory

Answer 108

people can maintain an overall sense of self-worth after a threatening event by affirming a valued aspect of themselves unrelated to the threat

if you fail a test, at least you’re a good friend

Question 109

self-verification theory

Answer 109

we strive for stable, accurate beliefs about ourselves rather than invariably favorable ones

stable beliefs make us more predictable to ourselves and others

if you see yourself as extroverted, you will seek to get others to see you as extroverted as well.

Question 110

self-regulation

Answer 110

people intiate alter and control their behavior in pursuit of their goals

Question 111

self-discrepancy theory

Answer 111

people hold beliefs about not only what they are actually like, but also what they would ideally like to be and what they think they ought to be

Question 112

actual self

Answer 112

who you believe you actually are

Question 113

ideal self

Answer 113

represents your hopes and wishes

Question 114

ought self

Answer 114

represents your duties and obligations

Question 115

when your actual self goes against your ought self you feel….

Answer 115

agitated related emotions

anxiety and guilt

when you don’t help your ailing grandma

Question 116

when your actual self goes against your ideal self you feel

Answer 116

dejected related emotions
dissapointment and shame

when your American idol audition goes to shit and you’re not a rockstar

Question 117

promotion focus

Answer 117

when people regulate their behavior to their ideal self status

a focus on attaining positive outcomes

Question 118

prevention focus

Answer 118

when people regulate their behavior to their ought self status

a focus on avoiding negative outcomes

Question 119

implementation intention

Answer 119

specify how one will behave to achieve a goal under particular circumstances

if-then approach

Question 120

self-presentation

Answer 120

presenting the person we would like others to believe we are

Question 121

self-handicapping

Answer 121

the tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior in order to have an excuse ready should one perform poorly or fail

saying that you didn’t study enough for the exam… so if you fail its not a reflection of your academic abilities… but just an excuse that you weren’t prepared in the first place

providing an explanation for possible failure so you can protect self-image if failure does occur

Question 122

Emotions are

Answer 122

motivational systems
innate
adaptive
communicative

Question 123

Emotions are innate

Answer 123

Babies have an innate fear of spiders <-Babies will look at things that resemble spiders much longer than other things even though they’ve never interacted with spiders before

universal: Cross-translational expressions of emotion, across cultures human expression for foundational emotions all look the same

innate with blind athletes: blind champions have a Duchenne (genuine) smile, whereas loser have forced smiles
Duchenne smiles are incredibly hard to learn/teach

people who had Duchenne smiles had self-reported measures of being happier in the future

Question 124

Emotions are Adaptive

Answer 124

1) functional properties for facial expression of certain emotions
disgust: protect from bacteria
surprise: wide eyes to take in all of surroundings

2) Brain Basis for Emotions
- amygdala: fear: fight or flight <- rats without an amygdala don’t give a fuck
- insula: disgust
- mid-cingulate: subjective experience of pain : when we’re socially excluded, this mid-cingulate cortex is highlighted <- exadaption : pain has evolved to also involve other people and social interactions
- ventral striatum: reward

Question 125

Emotions are Communicative

Answer 125

modify others behaviors
teach appropriate responses
signal commitment

Question 126

Social Learning of Emotions: Resheus Macacques

Answer 126

Infants aren’t afraid of snakes unless their moms are afraid of snakes too (learning) BUT Infants aren’t afraid of flowers regardless of whether or not mom is afraid of flowers (innate)

Evolution has given the infants the potential/capacity to learn and fear certain things (snakes) and not others (flowers)

Question 127

Emotions are communicative: modify other’s behaviors

Answer 127

modify others behaviors
- when you bowl, if somebody is looking at you… you smile
If nobody is there to see…you don’t smile
isn’t dependent on whether or not you win

phylogenetic
chimpanzees grimace when a subordinate is approaching a dominant to show like look don’t be mad at me… now we use it to be like no it’s ok… there’s nothing to worry about (example of an exaptation)

when a parent hears a child cry, the amygdala is heightened

Question 128

emotions are communicative: signal commitment

Answer 128

Mutually assured destruction
Committed yourself to nuke another country to prevent both countries from firing

Love
Trying to convince someone that you are their life partner irrationally (for better or for worse/ in sickness or in health)

Question 129

Ways that Gut Intuitions are Learned Hebbian Learning

Answer 129

Pavlovian conditioning
Play sound, give shock, hair stands up on fur
Play sound → hair stands up
This is learned: music associated with shock
This is innate: shock is associated with hair standing up on fur

over time…. once the music is played.. hair will stand up… even without

“fire together, wire together”

caveat
not just fire together wire together…. there needs to be an element of surprise for this connection to be learned

Question 130

Blocking

Answer 130

If you associate music with a shock, and then place music + light together, rats aren’t going to respond to just the light
They already made an association with music, they don’t need to make another one

Question 131

Prediction Error

Answer 131

calculates the difference between what the animal expects to have happen and what actually happens to the animal on a given event or trial.

measures surprise

if a is 1, you change your feelings after every situation.. if you have one bad bagel… you hate bagels…. if you have one good bagel… you love bagels

if a is 0.01, takes you a long time to change your feelings about a situation

Question 132

Model Based Approach

Answer 132

deriving from causal models

Example: a rat going through a maze and trying to get food (model based)
1) make a mental map of the maze <- know every possible outcome
And then pick the outcome that gives us the best reward

LIMITATIONS: takes a long time and likely isn’t feasible (i.e. chess ← there’s no way you can learn all the possible moves + outcomes of chess)

goal-directed planning

full ass rat
there’s a lever that lets you get food
when you destroy the model free and only have model-based planning

the model tells you that the lever gets you food
they don’t want food.
so they don’t press the lever

Question 133

Model Free Version

Answer 133

Instead of what will actually happen, you record whether or not an outcome is positive, negative, or neutral

Temporal difference learning (nucleus acumbus of striaum)
There’s a reward in having a good option
So things far off in the future will give you a gut feeling early on that that path is positive

you pass back the dopamine from the reward…to the things that are gonna get you the reward

habits

full ass rat
there’s a lever that lets you get food
when model based is destroyed and model free exists
it keeps on pushing the lever but doesn’t eat the food

because they just associated the lever with the reward…just had a gut feeling of it being good

patient HM <- gut feeling about doctors hand being bad…so he made an excuse, even though he couldn’t remember what the bad thing was

dopamine is surprising reward!!!

Question 134

why is cocaine addictive ?

Answer 134

because domaine is surprisingly addictive

every time, you think that cocaine is better than you thought

water/food can’t be surprisingly good every time

Question 135

irrational aversions: cyanide

Answer 135

model free: gut feelings that are trained through experience

if you see the stimulus of cyanide… you have a gut feeling that its going to be bad for you… its automatic

Question 136

ventral striatum

Answer 136

reward center

Question 137

irrational aversions: blue squares + shock

Answer 137

participant watches a computer screen…and there’s a 30% chance that he’s gonna get shocked … when he goes into brain scanner…the second he sees squares, his amygdala lights up

participant watches someone else get shocked… when the participants goes to scanner… amygdala still lights up when he sees squares

participant only gets told that he’s gonna get shocked, when he sees sqaures only left side of amygdala lights up <- side that is correlated with language processing

Question 138

Exogenus

Answer 138

stimulus that’s immediately present
“outside of you”

kissing someone

model-free/habit

Question 139

Endogenous

Answer 139

stimulus that imagined in the mind

thinking about kissing something

modelbased/planning/working memory

Question 140

A not B task

Answer 140

if m+m is repeatedly on left, if you switch m + m to the right there’s a conflict

working memory: needing to remember where the m+ m is

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex <- brain responsible for controlled cognition

if dorasalteral prefrontal cortex is damaged, then we are unable to hold information in working memory and manipulated it

Question 141

Reversal learning

Answer 141

measures the ability to actively suppress reward-related responding and to disengage from ongoing behavior, phenomena that are biologically and descriptively related to impulsivity and compulsivity.

having to exert control to understand and think through things

Question 142

Control is required for….

Answer 142

flexibility and negation**

which is worse? injecting morphine and killing somebody (action) or removing feeding tube and not saving someone (omission)

when omission was favored….using cognitive control….using dorsalteral prefrontal cortex

Question 143

Gilbert Experiment (Cognitive Control and Disbelief)

Answer 143

tells you things that you know are true or that you know are false

if all of your cognitive control is used for doing something else…. you’re not going to be able to negate the false information

acceptance is automatic
negation/rejection is controlled

Question 144

Push Polling

Answer 144

“would you say that you’re extremely satisfied with us”

its a lot more automatic to say yes and agree to this information than it is to refute/reject this information

Question 145

temporal discounting

Answer 145

an amount loses value the longer that we have to wait

we discount the future HYPERBOLICALLY (our preferences are always changing) not exponentially (our preferences stay the same)

rather have a reward in the immediate present than in the distant future… even if the reward is smaller in the present

Question 146

delayed gratification

Answer 146

marshmallow test

greater self-control

delayed reward

Question 147

belta delta model

Answer 147

our instinctual models think about immediate present (model-free <- reward) (ventral striatum) (driven by present stimulus)

our rational brains think about the future (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex <- cognitive control)

Question 148

willpower and cognitive load

Answer 148

willpower depends on cognitive control
so if you are doing another task (have cognitive load) and need to think about cake or fruit salad

you’re most likely to choose the immediate gratification and choose cake

Question 149

performance goals

Answer 149

that others judge children positively…. they will avoid failure but approach success

have a more fixed theory of intelligence

Question 150

learning goals

Answer 150

increasing their own competence… they will approach both failure and success

Question 151

effect of performance vs learning goals on performance

Answer 151

kids who receive intelligence phrase solve many fewer problems than those who receive effort praise. Those who receive intelligence praise misrepresent themselves to their peers much more often.

Question 152

confabulation

Answer 152

making up a reason for something in retrospect without realizing it

people make shit up and then believe it

we make reasons about why we feel the way that we feel and then we believe it

Question 153

choice blindness

Answer 153

two faces, pick a face, experiments gives them the other face…and they still justify it

Question 154

false confessions

Answer 154

participants are warned not to push the “alt” key or else data will be deleted. The computer then flashes “data deleted.” Does the participant admit to pressing the key, even though they did not? (Kassin & Kiechel 1996)
- Compliance = participant signs a confession, internalization = participant tells a confederate that they pressed the key, confabulation = the participant tells the experimenter details of their mistake
- Increasing the pace of typing -> increase in compliance, internalization, confabulation
- Adding a witness to the scene -> increase in compliance, internalization, confabulation

Question 155

priority principle

Answer 155

we think causation happens when one event is followed immediately by another

Ouija board

Question 156

facilitated communication

Answer 156

therapist really thinks that the patient is speaking when its their hands that are moving

Question 157

emotion misattribution

Answer 157

thinking emotion is coming from one place when its actually coming from another

shame- external
guilt - internal
more likely to behave out of guilt than out of shame

Question 158

ben Franklin effect

Answer 158

asking someone to do you a favor, they eventually like you

well damn if I’m doing all this stuff for someone, I must like them

Question 159

does cognitive dissonance an automatic or controlled process?

Answer 159

Likely both
- People who are under cognitive load experience cognitive dissonance to a similar extent -> perhaps automatic processes manipulate controlled thought

Question 160

false belief test

Answer 160

theory of mind
sally anne test

Question 161

cognitive control and theory of mind

Answer 161

decrease in performance if their cognitive control has been challenged

Question 162

theory of mind is domain specific

Answer 162

apes have a theory of mind for competition not cooperation

humans have a theory of mind for everything

Question 163

subjective self awareness

Answer 163

thinking about others

model free

Question 164

objective self awareness

Answer 164

thinking about yourself

Question 165

theory of objective self awareness

Answer 165

comparison of self to internal, idealized standard

if you like what you do and it meets your internal standard, you keep doing it

if you have a mirror, you’re more likely to act virtuously

Question 166

sociometer theory in adolescence

Answer 166

MPFC is activated <- thinking about others
ventral striatum activated <- thinking about reward/pleasure/displeasure