Midterm 1- Lesson 1-4

Question 1

Discuss the role of the following in digestion: the stomach

Answer 1

The stomach produces various gastric secretions, including pepsin and hydrochloric acid to further the digestive process, once the food passes through the esophagus by means of peristalsis, a unidirectional muscular movement toward the stomach.

Question 2

Discuss the role of the following in digestion: pancreas

Answer 2

As food progresses from the stomach to the duodenum (the intersection of the stomach and lower intestine), the pancreas becomes involved in the digestive process. Pancreatic juices, which are secreted into the duodenum, contain several enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. A critical function of the pancreas is the production of the hormone insulin, which facilitates the entry of glucose into the bodily tissues.

Question 3

Discuss the role of the following in digestion: the liver

Answer 3

The liver also plays an important role in metabolism by producing bile, which enters the duodenum and helps break down fats. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and is secreted into the duodenum as needed.

Question 4

Discuss the role of the following in digestion: small intestine

Answer 4

The absorption of food takes place primarily in the small intestine, which produces enzymes that complete the breakdown of proteins to amino acids. The motility of the small intestine is under the control of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, such that parasympathetic activity speeds up metabolism, whereas sympathetic nervous system activity reduces it.

Question 5

Discuss the role of the following in digestion: the large intestine.

Answer 5

Food then passes into the large intestine (whose successive segments are known as the cecum and the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon), which acts largely as a storage organ for the accumulation of food residue and helps in the reabsorption of water. The entry of feces into the rectum then brings about the urge to defecate, or expel, the solid waste from the body via the anus.

Question 6

Gastroenteritis

Answer 6

Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small intestine. It may be caused by such factors as excessive amounts of food or drink, contaminated food or water, or food poisoning. Symptoms appear approximately 2 to 4 hours after the ingestion of food; they include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and nausea.

Question 7

Diarrhea

Answer 7

Diarrhea is characterized by watery and frequent bowel movements, occurs when the lining of the small and large intestines cannot properly absorb water or digested food. Chronic diarrhea may result in serious disturbances of fluid and electrolyte (sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium) balance.

Question 8

Dysentery

Answer 8

Dysentery is similar to diarrhea except that mucus, pus, and blood are also excreted. It may be caused by a protozoan that attacks the large intestine (amoebic dysentery) or by a bacterial organism

Question 9

Peptic Ulcer

Answer 9

A peptic ulcer is an open sore in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum. It results from the hyper-secretion of hydrochloric acid and occurs when pepsin, a protein-digesting enzyme secreted in the stomach, digests a portion of the stomach wall or duodenum. A bacterium called H. pylori is believed to contribute to the development of many ulcers.

Question 10

Gallstones

Answer 10

When gallstones (made up of a combination of cholesterol, calcium, bilirubin, and inorganic cells) move into the duct of the gallbladder, they may cause painful spasms; such stones must often removed surgically. Infection and inflammation of the gallbladder is called cholecystitis and may be a precondition for gallstones.

Question 11

Appendicitis

Answer 11

Appendicitis is a common condition that occurs when wastes and bacteria accumulate in the appendix. If the small opening of the appendix becomes obstructed, bacteria can easily proliferate. Soon this condition gives rise to pain, increased peristalsis, and nausea. If the appendix ruptures and the bacteria are released into the abdominal cavity or peritoneum, they can cause further infection (peritonitis) or even death.

Question 12

Hepatitis

Answer 12

The term “hepatitis” means inflammation of the liver, and the disease produces swelling, tenderness, and sometimes permanent damage; it is a common, serious, contagious disease. When the liver is inflamed, bilirubin, a product of the breakdown of hemoglobin, cannot easily pass into the bile ducts. Consequently, it remains in the blood, causing a yellowing of the skin known as jaundice. Other common symptoms are fatigue, fever, muscle, or joint aches, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and sometimes diarrhea. There are several types of hepatitis, which differ in severity and mode of transmission.

Question 13

Hepatitis A

Answer 13

This disorder is caused by viruses, and typically transmitted through food and water. It is often spread by poorly cooked seafood or through unsanitary preparation or storage of food.

Question 14

Hepatitis B

Answer 14

Also known as serum hepatitis, it is caused by a virus and is transmitted by the transfusion of infected blood, by improperly sterilized needles, through sexual contact, and through mother-to-infant contact. Its symptoms are similar to Hepatitis A, but far more serious.

Question 15

Hepatitis C

Answer 15

This disease is also spread via blood and needles, and is most commonly caused by blood transfusions; more than 1.6% of Americans are infected.

Question 16

Hepatitis D

Answer 16

Is found mainly in intravenous drug users who are also carriers of hepatitis B, necessary for the hepatitis D virus to spread.

Question 17

Hepatitis E

Answer 17

This type of hepatitis resembles hepatitis A, but is caused by a different virus.

Question 18

Identify the contents and functions of urine.

Answer 18

Urine contains surplus water, surplus electrolytes, and waste products from the metabolism of food, and surplus acids or alkalis. By carrying these products out of the body, urine maintains water balance, electrolyte balance, and blood pH.

Question 19

Name two functions of the kidneys

Answer 19

One of the chief functions of the kidneys is to control the water balance in the body. For example, on a hot day when a person has been active and has perspired profusely, relatively little urine will be produced, so that the body may retain more water. This is because much water has already been lost through the skin.
Another important function of the kidneys is to maintain an adequate balance of sodium and potassium ions. Of the electrolytes, sodium and potassium are especially important because they are involved in the normal chemical reactions of the body, muscular contractions, and the conduction of nerve impulses.

Question 20

Urinary Tract Infections

Answer 20

A common renal system disorder, urinary tract infections are more susceptible to women and can result in considerable pain, especially on urination. If untreated, they can lead to more serious infection

Question 21

Acute Glomerular Nephritis

Answer 21

A disease that results from an antigen-antibody reaction in which the glomeruli of the kidneys become markedly inflamed. These inflammatory reactions can cause total or partial blockage of a large number of glomeruli, which may lead to increased permeability of the glomerular membrane, allowing large amounts of protein to leak in. When there is rupture of the membrane, large numbers of red blood cells may also pass into the glomerular filtrate. In severe cases, total renal shutdown occurs.

Question 22

Tubular Necrosis

Answer 22

Another common cause of acute renal shutdown, which involves destruction of the epithelial cells in the tubules of the kidneys. Poisons that destroy the tubular epithelial cells and sever circulatory shock are the most common causes of tubular necrosis.

Question 23

Kidney Failure

Answer 23

Kidney failure is a severe disorder because of the inability to produce an inadequate amount of urine causes the waste products of metabolism, as well as surplus inorganic cells and water, to be retained in the body. An artificial kidney, a kidney transplant, or kidney dialysis may be required in order to rid the body of its wastes. Although these technologies can cleanse the blood to remove the excess salts, water, and metabolites, they are highly stressful medical procedures. Kidney transplants carry many health risks, and kidney dialysis can be extremely uncomfortable le for patients.

Question 24

Estrogen

Answer 24

Females’ ovaries produce the hormone estrogen, which leads to the development of secondary sex characteristics in the female, including breasts and the female distribution of both body fat and body hair

Question 25

Progesterone

Answer 25

A hormone that is also produced by the female ovary, and is produced in the second half of the menstrual cycle to prepare the body for pregnancy, declines if pregnancy fails to occur.

Question 26

Testosterone

Answer 26

In males, testosterone is produced by the interstitial cells of the testes under control of the anterior pituitary lobe. It brings about the production of sperm and the development of secondary sex characteristics, including growth of the beard, deepening of the voice, male distribution of hair, and both skeletal and muscular growth.

Question 27

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Answer 27

STD’s are among the most common and problematic reproductive system disorders, which occur through sexual intercourse or other forms of sexually intimate activity. These include herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis, genital warts, Chlamydia, and the most serious, AIDS.

Question 28

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID):

Answer 28

For women, a risk of several sexually transmitted diseases may lead to PID, which may produce a variety of unpleasant symptoms, including severe abdominal pain, and may lead to infections that may compromise fertility.

Question 29

Gynecologic Disorders

Answer 29

Women are vulnerable to disorders such as vaginitis, endometriosis (in which pieces of the endometrial lining of the uterus move into the fallopian tubes or abdominal cavity, grow, and spread to the other sites), cysts, and fibroids (nonmalignant growths in the uterus).

Question 30

Cancer

Answer 30

The reproductive system is vulnerable to testicular cancer in men and gynecologic cancers in women, such as cancer of the cervix, uterus, and ovaries. Endometrial cancer is the most common female pelvic malignancy, and ovarian cancer is the most lethal.

Question 31

Menstrual Cycle Disorders

Answer 31

Disorders of the menstrual cycle include amenorrhea, which is absence of menses, and oligomenorrhea, which is infrequent menstruation. These problems may originate in the hypothalamus, in the anterior pituitary, or in the ovaries or reproductive tract. Location of the cause is essential for correcting the problem, which may include hormone therapy or surgery.

Question 32

Menopause

Answer 32

This is not a disorder but actually a normal part of the life cycle during which a woman’s reproductive life ends. However, unpleasant symptoms can occur during this transition period, including sleep disorders, hot flashes, joint pain, forgetfulness, and dizziness. As a result, many women choose to take hormone therapy (HT), which typically includes estrogen or a combination of estrogen and progesterone. HT was once thought to reduce the symptoms of menopause but also protect against the development of coronary artery disease, osteoporosis, and even Alzheimer’s disease Recent research has challenged some of these assumptions, as we shall see later in the course.

Question 33

renal system

Answer 33

Part of the metabolic system; responsible for the regulation of bodily fluids and the elimination of wastes; regulates bodily fluids by removing surplus water, surplus electrolytes, and waste products generated by the metabolism of food.

Question 34

kidney dialysis

Answer 34

procedure in which blood is filtered to remove toxic substances and excess fluid from the blood of patients whose kidneys do not function properly.