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1 Bisc 316- Vertebrate Biology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Chondrichthyes characteristics

A

1)Cartilaginous skeleton
2)Claspers (in males) for reproduction
3)Placoid scales
4)Teeth in replacement families
5)Variation in jaw suspension
6)Sensory systems
7)Spiracle
8)Series of gill openings
9)Lipid-filled liver; no air bladder

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2
Q

Amniotic Egg

A
  • Defined by embryonic development in a multi-membrane egg
  • Chorion forms the Outer membrane (ancestral), Encloses the yolk, amnion, allantois, & embryo
  • Amnion Inner-most membrane surrounding the embryo
  • Allantois Membrane creates a sac which stores waste& aids in respiration
  • Yolk enclosed in a vitalin membrane (aka yolk membrane)
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3
Q

Characteristics of Holocephali

A

1)Holostylic jaw suspension, Most rigid jaw suspension
2)Palatine plate
3)Oviparous
4)Single gill opening (with 4 gills inside), covered by an operculum; no spiracle.

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4
Q

Gained Features of Vertebrates over the Chordates

A

1)Vertebrae
2)Cranium
3)Brain
4)Pituitary
5)Multi-chambered heart
6)Mineralized tissues
7)HOX gene duplication

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5
Q

1st branchial arch develops into

A

Becomes the platoquadrante and madible

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6
Q

Modifications of Lissamphibia for land

A

Pelvic girdle attached to the vertebral column and the Pectoral girdle had to dissociate from the cranium

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7
Q

Sub Phylum Urochordata

A

Although they may look very different from other chordates, they all have chordate features (e.g. as larvae).

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8
Q

Respiration path of Hagfish

A

Median Nostril->Velum->Pharynx-> Gill arches->out of body

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9
Q

Evidence to support the theory that the gill arches evolved into jaws

A

1)Jaws,hyroid and gill arches share similar developmental origin
2)Nerves and blood vessel overlap for gill arches and jaw
3)Nerve and blood vessel match for spiracles and gill slits
4)Muscles that support jaws are related to muscles that support gill arches

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10
Q

Thelodonti

A

Jawless fish
Poorly arranged but durable scales
derived cranium
notable stomach
acellular bones

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11
Q

Earliest Brain segments

A

1)Procephalon
2)Mesencephalon
3)Rhombencephalon

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12
Q

Changes made to overcome gravity on land

A
  • Limb arrangement must change
  • Cost energy to move now
  • Dragging to walking
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13
Q

General Lissamphibia

A

Typically have aquatic and terrestrial life stages, with eggs laid in water,
Skin is permeable and substantially involved in respiration. They retain the lateral line and some species retain electroreception.

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14
Q

Reason for paired fin development

A

As swimming speed increases there is an increase instability along the rotary axis

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15
Q

Mineralized tissue

A

Combination of organic components and inorganic minerals using chemicals like sillica or CaCo3

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16
Q

Origin of the three inner ear bones

A

1)Palatoquadrate > quadrate > incus
2)Meckel’s cartilage >malleus
3)Hyomandibula > stapes

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17
Q

5 paired cranial bones

A

Lateral tooth-bearing series:Premaxilla & maxilla
Median series:Nasal, frontal, parietal, & postparietal
Circumorbital series:Lacrimal, jugal, prefrontal, postfrontal, postorbital
Temporal series: Supratemporal & tabular
Cheek series:Squmosal & quadratojugal

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18
Q

Upper jaw attached by ligament (ant.) and sup. by hyoid pos.

A

Amphistylic

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19
Q

Identify structures A-C

A

A)Canal of lorenzi
B)Nerve fiber
C)Ampula of Lorenzi

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20
Q

List the Vertebral regions from anterior to posterior

A
  • Cervical-neck
  • Thoraxic-upper back
  • Lumbar-lower back
  • Sacrum-pelvis
  • Coccyx- tail
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21
Q

Label structures A-I

A

A)Developed inner ear
B)Olfactory bulb
C)Jaws
D)Gill Skeletons
E)Pectoral fins
F)Pelvic fins
G)Anal fin
H)Caudal fin
I)Dorsal fin

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22
Q

New features of Gnathostomes

A

1)Shared HOX gene duplication
2)Jointed Gill arches
3)Jaws with teeth
4)Paired Fins
5)More developed vertebrae

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23
Q

The first Terrestrial tetrapod, similar to amphibians

A

Pederpes

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24
Q

Requirements to breath water

A

1)Gills
The respiratory (=gas exchange) surface is where O2 diffuses from water to blood through counter current exchange.

2) Flowing water
Fishes ventilate (=move water over) their gills.

3)Flowing blood
The heart pumps blood through the gills.

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25
Q

Identify this jaw type

A

Amphistylic

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26
Q

Cellular bone

A

Embedded cells remodel bone over time leading to complex microstructre ex. osteocytes

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27
Q

Characteristics of Elasmobranchs

A

Amphistylic jaw suspension: The upper jaw is attached to the chondrocranium anteriorly by ligaments and the posterior is supported by the hyoid arch (now called the hyomandibula).

Note the location of the mouth
Note the spines

Predecessor for the modern shark

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28
Q

Cranium

A

Feature found in vertebrates which is formed of cartilage or bone and protects the brain

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29
Q

What creates the pumping motion in Hagfish and Lamprey

A

Water is sucked or pushed through the oral cavity creating pressure changes that allow for water movement into the gills

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30
Q

Changes to bones in gnathostomes

A

1)Visceral arch become jointed
2)1st gill slit becomes a spiracle
3)Speicalization of the 1st and 2nd gill arch

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31
Q

Endostyle

A

Cilliated glandular groove on the floor of the pharynx, homologous to the thyroid and metabolizes iodine

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32
Q

Ventilation Hypothesis

A

1)Reduction in premadibular oral cavity, reorganization of mandibular arch, changes in hypobrachial musculature combined to increase gill ventilation
2)allows suction of prey
3)Jaws allowed for more forceful opening and closing of mouth

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33
Q

Conodonts

A

Feeding structures that suggest a shift from suspension feeding to predation and mineralized elements of tissues (Cambrain)

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34
Q

Actinopterygii traits

A

1)Ossified skeleton
2)Primitive Lung
3)Gas Bladder
4)Poikilothermic
5)Ovoparitous
6)Sensory Systems- development of second nostril
7)Fins-fin rays extend from radials
8)Scales

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35
Q

Gill Arch Theory

A

Fins are homologous with gill rays and girdles are homologous with gill arches

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36
Q

Identify these scale types

A

A)Cycloid
B)Ctenoid
C)Ganoid
D)Placoid

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37
Q

Acellular bone

A

Bone that has no cells embedded within and is deposited as is ex.Fish scales

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38
Q

Outside of a cartilaginous bone gets ossified

A

Perichondral bone

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39
Q

two connection points between upper jaw & chondrocranium; lower jaw connected to upper jaw

A

Autodiastylic

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40
Q

Clusters of specialized cells allow sharks (and other fish) to detect vibrations and pressure gradients in the water. This helps them to detect the movement of prey.

A

Lateral line

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41
Q

Unique structures of Lissamphibia

A
  • Columella= Derived from the hyoid arc and used to transmit high frequency sounds
  • Operculum=Coonnects to the ear capsule and Opercularis muscle links it to shoulder girdle to transmit vibration from ground
  • Levator Bulbi Muscle=Pushes eyes outward, increasing buccal cavity volume
  • Pedicillate Teeth=Dentine crown and base, Separated by uncalcified dentine or fibrous connective tissue
  • Poison Gland=Mucous gland to maintain skin moisture
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42
Q

Viviparity

A

live birth’. In animals, vivipary is where offspring grow and develop in the womb and are birthed live

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43
Q

The 5 Chordate features

A

1)Notochord
2)Dorsal neural tube
3)Pharyngeal slits
4)Endostyle
5)Post anal tail

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44
Q

Walks on the tip of their toe ex.horse

A

Unguligrade

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45
Q

Placoderms

A

The ‘armoured jawed fishes’
Headshield with fused plates of dermal bone
Hinge at the junction of the head and trunk
Jaws, with bony teeth
Some ossification of vertebrae

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46
Q

without fenestrae

A

Anapsid

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47
Q

Characteristics of modern sharks

A
  • Hyostylic jaw suspension: The upper jaw is attached anteriorly by ligaments to the chondrocranium. It is also hinged posteriorly by the hyomandibula.
  • viviparity
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48
Q

Galeaspida

A

Significant morphological variations
single dorsal opening for respiration
large # of gill slits
paired appendages

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49
Q

Examples of mienralized tissue

A

1)Mineralized cartilidge
2)bone
3)Dentine
4)Enamel

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50
Q

Cladograms

A

Nodes that show where species branched from a common ancestor but the branches themselves provide no information

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51
Q

Adaptations of Hagfish

A

1)Skeins of fibers that react with seawater to create slime
2)Tying themselves into knots to create leverage

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52
Q

Identify this jaw type

A

Holostylic

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53
Q

Gas bladder which has become separated from the gut using the circulatory system. Has a rete mirable which secretes lactic acid to help in loading and unloading of the CO2 and O2

A

Physoclistous

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54
Q

Draw the Lungfish lung

A
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55
Q

Pharyngeal Slits

A

Openings in the pharynx that allow for one way flow of water, similar to gills but are not used in respiration

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56
Q

Mineral %

A

Higher mineral % gives you more support but decreases the flexibility and shatter resistance

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57
Q

Post Anal Tail

A

The anus is not terminal, i.e., the body (including notochord and musculature) continues past the anus to form a tail.

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58
Q

Respiratory system of Cephlochordata

A

Respiration is through the surface.
Pharyngeal slits are not yet gill slits; not specialized for gas exchange.

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59
Q

Arcualia

A

resemble an evolutionarily early form of the vertebral column made of cartilage

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60
Q

Full foot on the ground from heel to toe, most stable ex.human

A

Plantigrade

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61
Q

One fenestra

A

Synapsid

62
Q

Anaspida

A

Lack armour
dorsal spines
related to cyclostomes

63
Q

4 shark categories and their jaws

A

1)Holocephali-Holostylic jaw suspension, Most rigid jaw suspension
2)Elasmobranchs-Amphistylic jaw suspension
3)Modern Sharks-Hyostylic jaw suspension
4)Batoidea-Modified hyostylic jaw suspension allows for greater suction feeding. Modified teeth are used for crushing shelled invertebrates.

64
Q

Feeding path of Cephalochordata

A

Pharynx-> Mucus of endostyle->gut->anus

65
Q

Anura (Frogs) characteristics

A

Vertebrae fused with ilium
*
Posterior vert. Fused into urostyle
*
Elongated limbs w/ fused bones

66
Q

Identify this jaw type

A

Hyostylic

67
Q

Characteristics of Batoidea

A
  • Enlarged pectoral fins; eyes and spiracles on the top, and multiple gill slits on the underside.
  • Oviparous: females lay egg cases
  • Modified hyostylic jaw suspension allows for greater suction feeding. Modified teeth are used for crushing shelled invertebrates.
68
Q

Ostracoderms

A

1)Bony head shield and smaller bony scales
2)Adapted to open swimming and shifting of sediment to avoid predation

69
Q

Amniote skin

A
  • Less permeable but more resistant to abrasion skin accomplished with Fewer glands, Thicker epidermis, including a thicker stratum corneum,More keratin,Higher hydrophobic lipid content
  • Scales form through thickening and folding of the epidermis layer with thick keratin sections followed by thin keratin sections
  • Molting:The outer layer of epidermis separates at the separation zone. The newly exposed layer of cells dies and forms a new stratum corneum.
70
Q

Chronograms

A

Nodes show where species branched from a common ancestor with branches that are proportional to the time since the group diverged from the last node

71
Q

Odontodes

A

First mineralized tooth like elements that formed within the skin evolving into teeth armour bone and scales. Forms under a dermal layer and minerals are deposited over time

72
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Produces and regulates hormones like the thyroid

73
Q

Features of Sarcopterygii

A

Two dorsal fins
Dual lobed tail
Fleshy fin stalks
Retention of lungs that feed oxygenated blood to the heart

74
Q

Circulation in vertebrates

A

Closed circulatory system with hemoglobin containing RBC and Gill slits for respiration

75
Q

Water intake path of Cephalochordata

A

Pharynx-> pharyngeal slits-> atrium->atriopore

76
Q

Chondrocranium

A
  • Contains the ethmoid and basal plates under the brain, Forms the posterior wall and foramen magnum, around the sensory organs and made of cartlidge
  • In agnathans it encapsulates the brain but for us it only makes the bottoms of our skull
77
Q

Benefits of mineralized tissue

A

1)protection
2)structural support
3)mineral storage

78
Q

Ventilation of gills in sharks vs fish

A

In sharks, water enters the mouth and/or spiracles, flows over the gills, and exits through the gill slits.

In fish, water enters the mouth, flows over the gills, and exits through the operculum.

79
Q

Circulatory system of Cephlochordata

A

1)Closed circulatory system with blood vessels.
2)Blood is plasma-like; no pigments or blood cells.
3)No heart; contractile blood vessels.
4)Blood vessels resemble vertebrate pattern (i.e., blood flows forward ventrally and towards the posterior dorsally).

80
Q

oviparity

A

expulsion of undeveloped eggs rather than live young

81
Q

Multichambered heart

A

2 chambers that pump blood with the Sinus venousus and Atrium

82
Q

Notochord

A

Flexible rod that can be bent laterally but not axially and is composed of fluid filled cells in a sheath which muscles will contract allowing for the swimming motion

83
Q

Novel Ostracoderm features

A

1)Pectoral fins
2)Claudial fins
3)Bony armour mineralization
4)Internal cartilaginous skeletons

84
Q

Identify this jaw type

A

Autodiastylic

85
Q

Brain

A

Feature found in vertebrates which is anterior of the dorsal neural tubes. The tube swells to form the 3 segment brain which processes sensory information

86
Q

Acanthodii traits

A

1)Rhomboid scales
2)Spines reinforce fins
3)Possibly first appearance of operculum
4) Dentated jaw (varies widely in type of dentition)

87
Q

Ovoviviparity

A

Ovoviviparous animals possess embryos that develop inside eggs that remain in the mother’s body until they are ready to hatch.

88
Q

Two fenestrae

A

Diapsid

89
Q

Buccal pump ventilation

A

Suction phase: The buccal chamber expands, creating negative pressure that draws water in through the mouth. The operculum or gill slits prevent water from entering over the gills and flowing backwards.
Force phase: The mouth closes, creating positive pressure that forces water out through the gills (via gill slits or operculum).
Used by: some sharks, and most fish.

90
Q

Role of cartilage structures in Lamprey and Hagfish

A

Supports the respiration from the gill arches

91
Q

Meckel’s cartilage

A

Arising in Placoderm jaws and continuing into Sharks, a piece of cartilage from which the mandibles (lower jaws) of vertebrates evolved.

92
Q

Dermatocranium

A

These make up the dorsal covering of the brain & sensory organs containing the Premaxilla, maxilla, mandible/dentary, Palate and opercule

93
Q

Changes to feeding on land

A
  • change from suction feeding to biting, leading to changes in width of head
94
Q

Actinopterygii major groups

A

1)Polypteriformes ex. Saddle birchir
2)Acipenseriformes ex. Sturgeon
3)Lepisosteiforms ex.gar
4)Amiiforms
5)Teleosts

95
Q

a chemosensory system located at the base of the septum on the vomer bone, involved in perceiving and processing stimuli related to social and reproductive behaviors in vertebrates

A

Vomeronasal Organ

96
Q

Lissamphibia orders

A

1)Gymnophiona(Caecillians)
2)Caudata(Salamanders)
3)Anura (Frogs)

97
Q

The upper jaw is fused with the chondrocranium. This arrangement gives high strength and low flexibility

A

Holostylic jaw suspension

98
Q

Chorionic Eggs

A
  • Chorion Encloses the entire egg
  • Yolk Enclosed by a vitalin membrane
99
Q

Splanchnocramium

A

Includes gill arches and their derivatives
Gill arch I (mandibular arch) becomes Quadropalate (dorsal) and Meckel’s caratilage (ventral)
Gill arch II (hyoid arch) becomes the Hyoid (plus ceratohyal, & basihyal)

Over time this was reduced and became the connection point of the jaw and our inner ear bones incus,malleus, and stapes

100
Q

Two diffrences between Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii that allowed for the transition to land in Sarcopterygii but not actinopterygii

A

1) Loss of primitive lung in actinopterygii
2)Addition of the Ulna Bone and more robust radials

101
Q
  • Membranous bone
  • No cartilage necessary
A

Dermal bones

102
Q

Path of blood through the sarcopterygii circulation system

A

Two Atria, Partially divided ventricle, Bulbus arteriosus spiral valve, a split occurs, Ductus arterious will change the blood flow allowing a bypass from the lung. When Oxygen is high it will go to the gills, when oxygen is low it will go to the lungs

103
Q

Hox Gene Duplication

A

Genes that regulate development are duplicated and exon regions are shuffled or mutated to produce new functions or developmental patterns

104
Q

Mineralized cartilaginous pieces that form the shark skeleton

A

Tesserae

105
Q

Hydroxyapatite

A

Composed of calcium and phosphate which helps store phosphate and is more stable in acidic environments than CaCo3

106
Q

organisms that are able to maintain different temperature “zones” in different regions of the body

A

Regional homothermy

107
Q

Changes for respiration on land

A
  • With aspirational breathing, air is pulled into the lungs, instead of being pushed into the lungs.
  • Adaptation of the incurrent and movement of the excurrent nostril into the buccal cavity allowing us to breath through the nostril allowing chewing and breathing
108
Q

shunts blood towards the lungs when oxygen is low, oxygenated blood is shunted to the gills and body

A

Bulbus arteriosus Spiral valve

109
Q

Path of Blood from gills to body in sharks/fish

A

Blood flows from the heart, through the gills where it is oxygenated, to the body. Veins bring deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

110
Q

Ram ventilation

A

The fish/shark swims with it’s mouth open, forcing water over the gills.
Used by: many sharks, and some large & fast fish.

111
Q

Evolution of bones pathway

A

1)Dermal bone
2)Dermal acellular bone
3)Dermal cellular bone

112
Q

Cambrain Period

A

No life yet on land
Protists an animals lived in the ocean along the continental shelf

113
Q

Ordovician and Sylvanian Era

A

1)First land plants, vascular plants, and fungi
2)Arthorpods begin to colonize land
3)Diversification of jawless fishes and mineralization of tissue

114
Q

Flow of blood in Lissamphibia body with lungs

A

Pulmonary vein takes blood from the lungs to heart->goes to body. Deoxygenated blood comes from hepatic vein (body)-> heart and then to the skin for respiration

115
Q

Organization of gills

A

Each side of the pharynx (L&R) has 9 hemibranchs.
An interbranchial septum (= septum between chambers) has gills on both sides; together with the gills it is called a holobranch.
A simple septum (=chamber on only one side) has a single hemibranch.

116
Q

Defined by the presence of an amniotic membrane in their eggs

A

Amniotes

117
Q

a physiological term for animals that vary between self-regulating their
body temperature, and allowing the surrounding environment to affect it

A

Heterothermy

118
Q

Challenges of adapting to land

A

1)Respiration
2)Gravity
3)Support
4)Sensory changes
5)Headshape

119
Q

Identify structures A-J

A

A)Nerual Tube
B)Notochord
C) V-shaped Myomeres
D)Anus
E)Atriopore
F) Pulsating blood
G)Atrium
H)Pharyngeal slit
I)Pharynx
J)Endostyle

120
Q

Sensory Systems changes in amniotes

A
  • Loss of the ooliths
  • introduction of the staples,incus, and malleus derived from the spiricle
  • Organ of Corti:Tectorial membrane is vital for conduction of sound waves with Hair cells causing nerve signals upon deflection
121
Q

Gas bladder which retains a connection to the gut. This allows for gulping or burping of air

A

Physostomus

122
Q

Jaw suspension types

A

1)Hyostylic
2)Autodiastylic
3)Amphistylic
4)Holostylic

123
Q

Spongy bone Replaces existing cartilage

A

Endochondral bone

124
Q

Metaspriggina

A

1)Development of eyes and nasal sac
2)Possible craniums and arculalia
3)No bones or mineralized tissues
(Cambrain)

125
Q

Osterostraci

A

Paired pectoral fins
calcified skeleton with three layered bones
electric organs

126
Q

Upper jaw attached by ligament (ant.); significant support to both upper & lower jaw from hyoid

A

Hyostylic jaw suspension

127
Q

Euphaneropids

A

Calcification of endosekeltal elements, anal tail. and 30 gill pans for more active lifestyle
(Cambrain)

128
Q

Piturriaspida

A

Large number of rostal projections
well paired fins

129
Q

Bone types

A

1)Dermal bones form armour/exoskeletons
2)Internal cartilage
3)Internal chondral bones

130
Q

How to identify Hagfish vs Lamprey

A

Top=Hag fish, 12 gill slits set further back, tentacles, slime glands
Bottom=Lamprey, seven pairs of gill slits set forward

131
Q

Label this diagram

A

A)Neural Spine and Arc
B)Prezygoprophysis
C)Spinal cord
D)Notochord
E)Rib
F)Centum elements
G)Postzygoprophysis

132
Q

Sensory systems in sharks

A

-1)Vision:Sharks have good vision, even at low light levels.
2)Chemoreception: Sharks are highly sensitive to smell. Differences in smell between the left and right nares provide information about the direction of a smell’s source.
3)Electroreception: Ampullae of Lorenzini are small organs that are found on the shark’s rostrum. These detect electrical fields, including those given off by the muscle activity of potential prey.
4)Lateral line system: Clusters of specialized cells allow sharks (and other fish) to detect vibrations and pressure gradients in the water. This helps them to detect the movement of prey.

133
Q

3-7 branchial arch

A

visceral arches

134
Q

Gymnophiona(Caecillians) characteristics

A
  • Highly derived species with unique mandibular abductors that forcefully shut the jaw
  • Make the milk
135
Q

Myllokunmingia/Haikouichthys

A

Oldest known craniates with skulls formed from cartilage. Early example of gills (Cambrain)

136
Q

Phylograms

A

Nodes show where species deviated from a common ancestor with branches lengths that equate to changes in the defining features

137
Q

Caudata(Salamanders) characteristics

A
  • Body plan usually informative about habitat / locomotion
  • Both external and internal fertilization
    -Eggs layed in mass covered in gelatinous material
138
Q

P. Chordata

A

Composed of the chordates and vertebrates this phylum is multicellular, bilateral symmetry, deuterostome development. sister phylum to echinoderms

139
Q

Fin Fold theory

A

the paired limbs are derived from the local persistence of parts of a continuous fold that in ancestral vertebrates passed along each side of the trunk and fused behind the anus into a single fin.

140
Q

an organism with a variable body temperature that tends to fluctuate with and is similar to or slightly higher than the temperature of its environment

A

Poikilothermic

141
Q

Changes in the skeleton of Actinopterygii

A
  • Formation of the Premaxilla, Maxilla, and Dentery
  • Development of the Operculum and loss of interbrachial septa
142
Q

Vertebrae

A

Structure found in Vertebrates that are made of cartilage or bone and protect the neural tube and Notochord which help to anchor structures such as the ribs

143
Q

Identify structures A-K

A

A)Support spine
B)Dorsal Neurochord
c)Notochord
D)Myomeres
E)Epipharyngeal groove
F)Endostyle
G) Pharyngeal slit
H)Pharyngeal rod
I)Pharyngeal lumen
J)Metapleural fold
K)Epidermis

144
Q

Dorsal Neural Tube

A

Forms during the development of the embryo via in folding of the ectoderm and acts as the central nervous system. Sits just above the notochord

145
Q

Label the egg

A

A)Yolk
B)Chorion
C)Allantois
D)Amnion
E)Embryo

146
Q

Flow of blood in the Lissamphibia body with gills

A

Heart->body and gills mixed together. Gills get oxygenated but mixes with the body deoxygenated blood

147
Q

Walks with toes on ground and heel raised,quick and quiet movements ex.cat

A

Digitgrade

148
Q

Scale shapes in Actinopterygii

A

cycloid,ctenoid,placoid and ganoid

149
Q

Ostracoderm groups

A

1)Arandaspida and Astrapida
2)Herterostaci
3)Anaspida
4)Thelodonti
5)Galeaspida
6)Pituriaspida
7)Osterostraci

150
Q

2nd branchial arch

A

Becomes the hyoid arch

151
Q

Changes to sensory processing on land

A
  • loss of the lateral line and Electroreception as your in air
  • Spiracle developed into a tube and the hyomandibula turns into Stapes allowing the formation of the Ear
152
Q

Label the strucutres 1-10

A

1)Barbel
2)Median Nostril
3)Mouth
4)Oral cavity
5)Pharynx
6)Velum
7)Nasopharyngeal duct
8)Brain
9)Adenohypophysis
10)Nasal Sac

1 Bisc 316- Vertebrate Biology (8 decks)

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