Midterm 1 Flashcards
Proximal vs Distal
Proximal: towards point of attachment of limb to trunk
Distal: away from point of attachment of limb to trunk
Lateral vs medial
Lateral: away from midline
Medial: towards midline
Superficial vs deep
Superficial: at/near/close to body surface
Deep: towards interior, farther from surface
Crainal/ Superior/ Cephalic vs Caudal/ Inferior
Crainal/ Superior/ Cephalic: towards head
Caudal/ Inferior: towards tail or coccyx
Anterior/ Ventral vs. Posterior/ Dorsal
Anterior/ Ventral: front surface
Posterior/ Dorsal: back surface
Intermediate
between medial and lateral structure
2 divisions of the body?
Axial part (head, neck, trunk)
Appendicular part (appendages/limbs attached to axis)
4 body planes/ sections?
Sagittal plane- vertical plane divides body into right and left parts
Frontal/ coronal plane- vertical plane divides body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse plane- horizontal plane from right to left, divides body into superior and inferior parts
Oblique- tilted plane, not at 90
2 parts of dorsal cavity?
Cranial cavity- enclosed by skull and houses brain
Vertebral cavity- enclosed by vertebrae and houses spinal cord
2 parts of ventral cavity?
Thoracic cavity- 2 lateral pleural cavities, medial mediastinum conataining central pericardial cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity- superior abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines), inferior pelvic cavity (bladder, rectum)
Membranes in the body cavity?
Serosa: thin double layered membrane, cover surfaces in ventral cavity
Parietal Serosa: lines internal body cavity walls
Visceral Serosa: internal organs (viscera)
9 abdominal regions: From right to left, top to bottom
right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac region, pubic (hypogastric) region, left iliac region
Regional terms: Cephalic, Cervical
Thoracic, Manus, Pedal, Dorsal
Cephalic: head
Cervical: neck
Thoracic: lungs, upper chest
Manus: hand
Pedal: foot
Back (dorsal): complete back
Structure of skin (3 layers)
1.4 to 4mm
Epidermis ( superficial epithelial, keratinized stratified squamous epithelia)
Dermis (dense connective tissue, vascularized)
Hypodermis (superficial fascia, not part of skin, adipose tissue)
4 types of cells in the epidermis:
Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Dendritic (Langerhans) cells
Tactile (Merkel) cells
Keratinocytes and Melanocytes
Keratinocytes- most common, make keratin protein, epidermal growth factor is hormone that acts on layer to make new cells, come from epidermal stem cells
Melanocytes- produce melanin, packed in melanosomes, branching for melanin transfer to adjacent cells
Dendritic and Tactile cells
Dendritic (Langerhans) cells- epidermal, migrate from bone marrow, macrophages activate immune
Tactile (Merkel) cells- epidermis boundary, touch receptors
How many layers does each type of skin have?
Thick skin- 5 strata
Thin skin- 4 strata
5 layers of skin?
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum (corresponds with less melanin in these areas) thick skin
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale (mitotic cells, bottom layer towards dermis)
what is the dermis?
Strong, flexible connective tissue
Cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, WBCs
Semi-fluid matrix embedded with collagen, elastin, reticular fibers (bind body together)
2 layers of the dermis?
Papillary (thin superficial)
Interwoven mat of areolar CT fibers with blood vessels
Deermal papillae: superficial region of the dermis that indents overlying epidermis
Reticular (Thick deep)
Deeper thick dense irregular CT, source of cleavage lines (lines of tension)
Collagen fibers give strength, elastic fibers provide recoil
What are friction ridges?
Dermal papillae lie on top of dermal ridges which give rise to epidermal ridges (friction ridges)
Enhance gripping ability
Sense of touch, fingerprint
Develop pre-birth, unique details
Striae
Stretch marks, stretching skin happens faster than cells can keep up, skin tears to create “marks”
Blister
Rubbing against surface causes separation of dermis from epidermis, fluid leaks into “injured” area
Flexure lines
The dermis is tightly layered to underlying structure, skin must fold instead of stretching
What is the hypodermis?
Superficial fascia, subcutaneous tissue
Areolar CT, blood vessels, adipose tissue
Anchors skin to underlying structures, shock absorber, insulation
What 3 things contribute to skin color?
Melanin- made in skin derived from tyrosine
Skin color dependant of type, relative amount and keratinocyte retention of pigment
Carotene- yellow/orange pigment in plant products, deposits in keratinocytes and hypodermis
Hemoglobin- from capillary circulation, gives pinkish hue
what is hair?
Flexible strands of dead, kerantinized cells, produced by hair follicles
None on palms, soles, lips, nipples, external genitalia
Functions: sense, guard head, heat loss, filter particles
Composition: hard keratin, more cysteine, more strength
Parts of the hair shaft? (3)
Medulla: large cells separated by air spaces
Cortex: several layers of flattened keratinocytes
Cuticle: single layer of overlapping cells
Shape of shaft determines if hair is straight or curly
Structure of hair? (6 parts)
Shaft: part that projects from skin: has 3 layers
Root: part embedded in skin
Bulb: deep end of follicle, has papilla and root hair plexus
Follicle: outer CT root and inner epithelial root
Arrector pili muscle: contract to pull hair and dimple skin
Sabaceous gland: holocrine that secrets sebum
Parts of the hair follicle (4)
Hair papilla: dermal tissue with capillaries that supply nutrients to hair
Hair matrix: actively diving area of bulb that produces hair cells
Arrector pili: small band of smooth muscle attached to follicle
Melanocytes: produce melanin, transferred to cells
What are nails?
Scale like modification of epidermis
Free edge, body, nail fold- 2 lateral and 1 proximal
Eponychium: nail fold that projects onto surface of nail body (cuticle)
Hyponychium: area under free edge of plate that accumulates dirt
Nail Matrix: thickened portion of bed responsible for nail growth
2 types of sweat glands?
Eccrine (merocrine): simple coiled tubular glands with pore, abundant on palms, soles, forehead, function in thermoregulation
Apocrine: axillary and anogenital areas, larger, ducts empty into hair follicles, - odourless until decomposed by skin bacteria leading to body odour, function as equivalent of sexual scent
Terminal vs Vellus hair
Terminal hair: hair on head, you can see, have medulla, cortex, cuticle
Vellus hair: peach fuzz, no medulla
How does the skin protect?
Chemical barrier : acidic skin secrention retards bacterial replication, melanin protects against UV damage
Physical: barrier to trauma & bacterial invasion; also waterproof, not impermeable
Biological: Langerhans cells of epidermis & macrophages in dermis
Thermoregulation?
sweating, insensible vs. sensible (you can see sweat)
What are cutaneous senses?
sense of touch
Metabolic effects of skin?
Vit. D synthesis needed for absorption of Ca2+, conversion of topically-applied cortisone to hydrocortisone
Excretion and blood reservoir?
Excretion: NaCl & H2O loss via sweat
Blood Reservoir: dermis can hold 5% of blood
3 kinds of burns?
First degree: only epidermis damaged
Second degree: epidermis and upper dermis
Third degree: epidermis and dermis
How to evaluate burns?
Evaluated by rule of nines, used to estimate volume of fluid lost
Body broken into 11 sections, each representing 9% of surface
What is cartilage?
Avascular, no nerve fibers, collagen and some elastic fibers, Ground substance contains glycosaminoglycans
What is the perichondrium?
layer of connective tissue surrounding cartilage
Cells of cartalige (3)
Chondroblasts: immature cartilage cells
Chondrocytes: mature cartilage cells
Lacunae: localized clusters of chondrocytes
3 types of cartalige?
Hyaline- most abundant, support/ pliability, lots of collagen and chondrocytes
Elastic- more elastic fibers, external ear, epiglolttis
Fibrocartilage- rows of chondrocytes alternating with collagen fibers, tensile strength
Functions of Bone?
Reacts to amount of force applied by increasing the density & amount of roughening on bone or decreasing density when force is reduced
Stores calcium, calcium salts give hardness and strength to protect softer tissues
Functions- support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation, fat storage, hormone production
Different calcified tissues? (2)
Compact bone- dense outer layer
Spongy Bone- trabeculae
Compact bone provides outer surface, spongy occupies middle region
Linings of bone? (2)
Periosteum: outer fibrous layer/ inner osteogenic layer
Endosteum: covers trabeculae and lines canals of compact
4 types of bone?
Long bone, flat bone (skull, ribs), irregular bone (vertebrae and hip), short bones (wrist, ankle)
How is long bone structured?
Diaphysis:
Tubular shaft= long axis of bone
Collar of compact bone surrounding marrow cavity (medullary cavity)
Epiphyses:
Extremities of long bone
Compact external bone, spongy interior
Thin layer of hyaline on surface
Epipyseal Line:
Between diaphysis and epipysis
Remnant of epipyseal plate
Structure of Short/Irregular/Flat Bone:
Compact bone outside, spongy bone inside
Periosteum covers outside, endosteum covers inside
No shaft or marrow cavity, bone marrow between trabeculae
Hyaline cartilage covers articular surfaces
Structure of compact/lamellar bone
Consists of:
Oseton (Haversian system)
Elongated cylinder that runs parallel to long axis, acts as weight bearing pillar
Osteon cylinder consists of several rings of bone matrix called lamellae
Canals and canaliculi
Interstitial and circumferential lamellae
Osteocytes?
mature bone cells; sit within small cavities (lacunae)
Canaliculi?
small canals that connect the lacunae with each other; also connected to central canal of Haversian system
Interstitial/ circumferential lamellae?
Interstitial lamellae: fill the gaps between forming osteons or are leftovers of osteons Circumferential lamellae: sheets of bone located just deep to periosteum
structure of spongy bone?
trabeculae arranged along lines of stress; helps bone to resist stress
trabeculae only a few cell layers thick; contain irregularly arranged lamellae & osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi
no osteons
nutrients diffuse through canaliculi
What is osteogensis?
the process of bone tissue formation:
Includes formation of bony skeleton in embryos, postnatal bone growth during childhood & adolescence, bone remodeling and repair throughout life
Intramembranous ossification?
Bone develops from fibrous CT membrane
Begins about 8 weeks of development & bones are called membrane bones
Cranial bones of the skull and clavicles – flat bones
Endochondral ossification?
Development via replacement of a hyaline cartilage model
Bones are called cartilage (endochondral) bones
Form most of skeleton/all bones below the skull (except the clavicles)
begins in 2nd month
After ossification is complete, where does hyaline cartilage remain?
on the epiphyseal surfaces as the articular cartilages
at the junctions of diaphysis and epiphyses where it forms the epiphyseal plates
How do bones grow?
long bones lengthen entirely by interstitial growth of the epiphyseal plates and all bones grow in thickness by appositional growth
How does bone remodeling work?
Bone has to be reshaped to be incorporated into the diaphysis, but the diaphysis also has to be get thicker and stronger as the bone lengthens
bone is destroyed by osteoclasts and laid down by osteoblasts on both the inner and outer surfaces of a growing long bone
Epiphyseal plate stays ~ same size throughout childhood, becomes thinner
Longitudinal growth ends when bone of the epiphysis & diaphysis fuses = epiphyseal plate closure
How does hematoma formation work?
local bone cells are deprived of oxygen and die; inflammation causes pain
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
invaded by blood vessels that bring macrophages to clean up; osteoclasts resorb damaged bone; fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts lay down collagen
Bony callus formation?
cartilage converted to trabecular bone – complete in ~2 months
Bone remodeling?
any extra bony material is removed; outer bone of shaft walls converted to compact bone and bone regains original shape
What is osetoporosis?
bone becomes porous
especially vulnerable: spine, neck of femur
Risk Factors
age/estrogen & testosterone promote bone health
insufficient exercise
diet poor in calcium & protein
abnormal vitamin D receptors
smoking
Crainnal vault and base?
Cranial vault (calvaria) superior, lateral & posterior aspects of the skull + forehead
Cranial base: anterior, middle, and posterior, cranial fossae
internally, 3 bony ridges divide the cranial base into 3 distinct areas: anterior (highest) fossa, middle fossa & posterior (lowest) fossa
What are the 8 bones of the cranium?
Parietal (2), ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal (2), occipital, frontal
What are sutural bones:
tiny irregular bones; can occur within cranial suture additional ossification centers that appeared rapidly during fetal development
Parietal bone
Bulk of cranial vault, 4 sutures articulate with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones
Ethmoid
a cube that lies deep between orbits & nasal cavities, forms roof of nasal cavity & floor of anterior cranial fossa; tiny holes (olfactory foramina) transmit to olfactory nerves
crista galli projects superiorly to attach to dura mater of brain
lateral masses contain ethmoid sinuses
Sphenoid
complex bat-shaped bone; forms base of middle cranial fossa,
3 pairs of processes: Greater & lesser wings (orbits, ACF, MCF), Pterygoid processes
Optic foramina (canals): for optic nerves
Superior orbital fissure between greater & lesser wings (cranial nerves for eye movement)
Sella turcica
Temporal
Squamous region: flattened zygomatic process to the cheekbone
mandibular fossa receives condyle of the mandible
Tympanic region
surrounds the external auditory meatus, styloid process points inferiorly
Petrous region
contributes to cranial base & houses middle and inner ear cavities
Mastoid process: major attachment area for some neck muscles
Styloid process: attachment area for muscles of the tongue and some neck muscles
Occipital
cranial fossa, sphenoid bone
Foramen Magnum- exit for spinal cord
Occipital Condyles: on each side of foramen magnum, site of articulation with first cervical vertebrae
External occipital protuberance: projection at back of skull
Frontal
dome-shaped bone; forms the roof of the orbits & anterior cranial fossa
4 main sutures on skull?
squamous- temporal and paroetal
coronal- frontal and 2 parietal
saggittal- 2 parietal
Lambdoid- occipital and 2 parietal
How many facial bones?
14, mandible & vomer are unpaired
paired bones: maxillae, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, palatine & inferior conchae
Parts of mandible?
left & right rami join body at mandibular angle, TMJ joint
Mandibular notch
Coronoid process (insertion of temporalis muscle)
Mandibular condyle
Alveolar margin (contains tooth sockets)
Mandibular foramina
Mental foramina
Maxillary bones?
alveolar margins hold teeth of upper jaw, Palatine processes project posteriorly forming anterior 2/3 of hard palate
incisive fossa (passage of blood vessels & nerves)
Infra orbital foramen
main portion of bone on each side has maxillary sinus
Zygomatic
cheekbones, articulate with zygomatic processes of temporal, frontal and maxillary bones, contribute to inferolateral margins of orbit
Nasal bones?
2 tiny, rectangular bones that fuse medially to form bridge of nose, articulate with frontal bone superiorly & maxillary bones laterally
Lacrimal bones?
2 fingernail-shaped bones in anterior, medial portion of orbit. Articulate with: Frontal and Ethmoid bone and the Maxillae
Palatine bones?
2 L-shaped bones horizontal plates form part of hard palate, vertical plates - nasal cavity & orbit
Vomer?
Single thin bone forms nasal septum
Inferior Nasal Conchae
superior & middle nasal conchae from ethmoid bone, thin, curved bones - project medially
forms part of lateral walls of nasal cavity
What are orbits?
Encases the eyes and lacrimal glands, sites of attachment for eye muscles, formed by parts of seven bones
What 7 bones make the orbits?
Zygomatic, Frontal, Maxilla, Ethmoid, Lacrimal, Sphenoid, Palatine (orbital process)
What is the hyoid bone?
only bone of the body that does not articulate with any other bone, supports tongue & gives attachment to muscles for swallowing & speech, horseshoe-shaped with a body + 2 pairs of horns
Paranasal Sinuses?
Mucosa-lined, air-filled,lighten skull and enhance resonance of voice,connect to nasal cavity so also help to warm & humidify incoming air
Frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, ethmoid
Vertebral coloum?
33 bones of which 24 remain separate (flexibility) and the remaining 9 fuse to form 2 composite bones (sacrum & coccyx)
7 cervical, 12 thoracics, 5 lumbar
Main functions:
Weight-bearing, anchor for muscles & ligaments, protection of spinal cord
4 curvatures?
Two posteriorly concave curvatures (cervical and lumbar)
Two posteriorly convex curvatures (thoracic and sacral)
Order of spine
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx
Major supporting ligaments?
Anterior & Posterior longitudinal
continuous bands down ventral & dorsal sides of vertebral bodies from neck to sacrum
broad anterior is strongly attached to bony vertebrae & the discs; prevents hyperextension of spine
posterior is narrow, weaker & attached only to discs & prevents hyperflexion of spine
What are intervertebral discs
Cushioning between bony vertebral bodies - shock absorbers - 25% length of vertebral column
Nucleus pulposus (centre): inner gelatinous nucleus / like a rubber ball »» elasticity & compressibility
Annulus fibrosus (periphery): outer collar of collagen & fibrocartilage that holds together successive vertebrae & resists tension in spine
Discs thickest in lumbar/sacral regions
What are intervertebral discs
Cushioning between bony vertebral bodies - shock absorbers - 25% length of vertebral column
Nucleus pulposus (centre): inner gelatinous nucleus / like a rubber ball »» elasticity & compressibility
Annulus fibrosus (periphery): outer collar of collagen & fibrocartilage that holds together successive vertebrae & resists tension in spine
Discs thickest in lumbar/sacral regions
Structure of vertebrae?
Get larger as one descends column
Weight-bearing body (ant) + vertebral arch (post)
Vertebral foramen = enclosure created by the arch + body enclose.
Vertebral arch = 2 pedicles (short pillars form sides of arch) + 2 laminae (fused, flattened plates) make up each
7 processes from veretrbrae?
1 spinous process
2 transverse processes
Paired superior & inferior articular processes
Cervical vertebrae?
7 total
C1 & C2 have unusual structure & no intervertebral disc
C3 to C7 considered cervical typical:
oval, broader side-to-side than front-to-back
spinous process short & split at end
vertebral prominens
vertebral foramen large
each transverse process contains transverse foramen
Cervical C1
no body & no spinous process
posterior & anterior neural arches
lateral masses with superior & inferior articular facets
Superior surfaces (facets) of the lateral masses articulates with occipital condyles
Cervical C2
more like C3-C7, except for dens or odontoid process
projects superiorly into the anterior arch of the atlas
is a pivot for the rotation of the atlas
Thoracic vertebrae?
T1 to T12 ( in size from first to last)
All articulate with ribs
The body is roughly heart-shaped & bears facets for ribs (paired demi-facets)
Circular vertebral foramen
The long, spinous process that points inferiorly
Transverse processes have facets for articulation with tubercles of ribs (except 11 & 12)
Lumbar Vertebrae?
5 total (L1 to L5)
lower back » major weight-bearing function
bodies are kidney-shaped & increase in size from top to bottom
pedicles & laminae shorter & thicker than those of other vertebrae
spinous processes are flat, hatchet shaped, short -projects directly back
vertebral foramen is triangular
orientation of facets unique - curved; sup. faces in & inf. faces out (prevent rotation)
