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Microbiology 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Genetics

A

the science of heredity

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2
Q

Chromosomes

A

structures containing DNA that carry genes, microbes only have a single chromosome, we have a set of 2

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3
Q

Prokaryote chromosome

A

have a circular chromosome, genes are much more simple than eukaryotes

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4
Q

Eukaryote chromosome

A

have a linear chromosome (us), can preform gene splicing, genetics are very complex

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5
Q

Genes

A

the molecular unit of heredity

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6
Q

Alleles

A

different versions of genes, seen in eukaryotes only

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7
Q

Mutations

A

a source for different types of genes

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8
Q

DNA structure

A

double stranded helix, nucleic acid composed of nitrogenous bases

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9
Q

Nitrogenous bases

A

the base components of DNA and RNA, made of 5 carbon sugar and a phosphate group, they form the rungs of the structure

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10
Q

Nitrogenous base pairings DNA

A

C makes 3 hydrogen bonds with G, T makes 2 hydrogen bonds with A

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11
Q

Nitrogenous base pairings RNA

A

C makes 3 hydrogen bonds with G, U makes 2 hydrogen bonds with A

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12
Q

Genetic information transfer

A

DNA replication
Transcription
Translation
entire process takes place in the cytoplasm, all steps can occur at the same time, this can’t happen in eukaryotes

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13
Q

DNA replication

A

occurs before binary fission, must move from 5’ to 3’, is a semi-conservative process because each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one new strand of DNA

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14
Q

DNA is anti-parallel

A

top strand is synthesized from 5’ to 3’, bottom strand synthesizes from 3’ to 5’ because it synthesizes in the opposite direction

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15
Q

Leading strand

A

DNA strand that continuously synthesizes

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16
Q

Lagging strand

A

DNA strand that synthesizes discontinuously

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17
Q

Origin

A

where DNA synthesis begins

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18
Q

Replication bubble

A

where the DNA strand opens up to be synthesized

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19
Q

Enzymes/molecules involved in DNA replication

A 
DNA polymerase
DNA ligase
Helicase
Single strand DNA binding proteins
RNA primase
Ribozyme
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20
Q

DNA polymerase

A

synthesizes DNA, can add nucleotides to the 3’ end only (OH), has a proof reading function to correct mutations

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21
Q

DNA ligase

A

covalently links the Okazaki fragments in lagging strand synthesis

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22
Q

Helicase

A

seperates the 2 strands of DNA and unwinds them

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23
Q

Single stranded DNA binding proteins

A

stabilize the strand of DNA, keeps the 2 strands separate by not allowing them to connect their hydrogen bonds

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24
Q

RNA primase

A

puts down RNA primer that is later removed and replaced with nucleotides, this allows us to have a 3’ hydroxyl for DNA polymerase

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25
Q

Ribozyme

A

RNA enzyme that removes introns and splices exons together, capable of acting as an enzyme

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26
Q

RNA synthesis

A

only one strand is copied

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27
Q

RNA polymerase

A

begins transcription when it binds to the DNA at the promoter site, synthesis continues until it reaches the terminator site on the DNA

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28
Q

Promoter sequence

A

indicate the start of a gene

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29
Q

RNA types (3)

A

rRNA
mRNA
tRNA

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30
Q

rRNA

A

forms integral part of ribosomes

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31
Q

Ribosomes

A

a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, cellular machinery for protein synthesis, bind mRNA and tRNA to build polypeptides and proteins, found in large numbers in cell ctoplasm

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32
Q

mRNA

A

carries coded information that must betranslated, ultimately results in a protein

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33
Q

tRNA

A

structural RNA, involved in protein synthesis

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34
Q

Important tRNA sites

A

amino acid binding site, anticodon

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35
Q

mRNA codons

A

there are 64 codons and only 20 amino acids, the code will be redundant

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36
Q

Genetic code

A

is redundant, universal or nearly universal, 64 codons, 61 are sense codons, 3 are non-sense codons

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37
Q

Sense codons

A

code for an amino acid

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38
Q

Non-sense codons

A

aka stop codons, you hit one about 5% of the time

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39
Q

AUG

A

is the start codon

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40
Q

Regulation of metabolism

A

80% of bacteria are not regulated

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41
Q

Constitutive

A

bacteria that are not regulated and are being produces all the time

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42
Q

Feedback inhibition

A

enzymatic, end product is threonine which goes back to enzyme 1 and shuts down the pathway through non-competitive inhibition

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43
Q

Genetic regulation of metabolism

A

uses operons, I gene is upstream from the operon and is always on

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44
Q

Mutation types

A

point mutation

frame shift

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45
Q

Point mutations

A

silent
missense
nonsense

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46
Q

Silent mutations

A

base substitution, has no effect on the organism

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47
Q

Missense mutations

A

coding for the wrong amino acid

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48
Q

Nonsense mutations

A

base substitution mutation, codes for a stop codon then the sequence is not completely done

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49
Q

Causes of mutations

A

spontaneous
induced
chemical mutations
radiation

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50
Q

Spontaneous mutations

A

arise during replication

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51
Q

Induced mutations

A

chemical mutagens

ex: acridine: frame shift, wedges into double helix causing a frame shift

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52
Q

Chemical mutations

A

Base analog

5-bromouracid is inserted into DNA instead of thymine, base pairs with Guanine

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53
Q

Radiation

A

causes adjacent pyrimidines to bond, transcription of mRNA stops at the gap

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54
Q

DNA repair

A

Light repair
Dark repair
uses DNA polymerase, ligase, endonucleases, and exonuclease

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55
Q

Light repair

A

light activates photolyases that break dimers

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56
Q

Dark repair

A

can occur with or without light, uses nucleotide excision repair

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57
Q

Ways to acquire mutation

A

Induced

spontaneous

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58
Q

Induced mutations

A

exposure to an antibiotic induced a change in an organism, mutations occur only in the presence of antibiotics

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59
Q

Spontaneous mutations

A

allows the organism to grow in an antibiotic, this selects for the resistant mutant, there will be large fluctuations in the number of resistant organisms per culture, a mutation can occur early or late in the incubation period

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60
Q

Fluctuation test

A

used to determine whether mutations were spontaneous or induced

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61
Q

Replica plating method

A

used to study mutations, sterile velveteen pad is imprinted on master plate, in the same orientation, the pad is used to inoculate an agar plate with the antibiotic

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62
Q

Conclusor

A

used to study mutations, bacteria on the antibiotic plate had resistance without exposure, this demonstrates the spontaneous nature of mutations

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63
Q

Ames test

A

used to screen chemicals for their mutagenic properties, uses histidine autotrophes of salmonella, upon exposure to mutadine, they have the ability to revert back to histidine synthesizing capability

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64
Q

Carcinogens

A

tend to be mutagens

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65
Q

Auxotroph

A

nutritionally deficient mutant

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66
Q

Resistance plasmids

A

aka R plasmids, resistance is not induced by antibiotics, resistant strains are selected for by antibiotic use

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67
Q

Genetic engineering

A

the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes

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68
Q

Genetic engineering techniques

A

protoplast fusion, recombinant DNA cloning

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69
Q

Protoplast fusion

A

protoplasts of 2 strains can be mixed to allow for genetic recombination of desired characteristics
EX: slow growing, good producer of substance fuse when there is polyethylene glycol with a fast growing poor producer to get a fast growing good producer

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70
Q

Protoplast

A

organism with its cell wall enzymatically removed

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71
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

DNA from 2 different sources covalently linked to create a single DNA
If a plasmid is cut with the same restriction enzyme, the 2 DNAs will have compatible “sticky ends”, can covalently link the 2 DNA with DNA ligase, this makes recombinant DNA

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72
Q

Gene cloning

A

the production of multiple copies of a gene carrying pieces of DNA, recombinant plasmid is used to transform bacteria, recombinant bacteria are selected for using media with an antibiotic, clonal population of cells create multiple copies of the gene

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73
Q

Viruses

A

obligate intracellular parasites, can only replicate inside a host cell

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74
Q

Virus nucleoproteins

A

nucleic acid covered by a protein coat, viral genome may be either DNA or RNA

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75
Q

Viral components

A

nucleic acid core
capsid
envelope

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76
Q

Viral nucleocapsid

A

naked (no envelope)

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77
Q

Viral nucleic acid core

A

genome may be DNA or RNA, ss- or ds-, linear, circular or segmented

78
Q

Viral capsid

A

protein coat that surrounds the genome, composed of capsomeres

79
Q

Viral envelope

A

bilayer membrane spikes, glycoproteins attach to host receptor

80
Q

Viral size

A

must be viewed with an EM, ribosome = 25-30nm

81
Q

Viral shapes

A

Heilcal
Polyhedral
Complex capsid

82
Q

Helical shape

A

capsid forms helix around genome

83
Q

Polyhedral shape

A

capsid is many sided, most common

84
Q

Icosahedron

A

20 triangular faces

85
Q

Complex capsid shape

A

combination of helical and icosahedral shapes

86
Q

Viral host range

A

the spectrum of hosts that a virus can infect

87
Q

West Nile virus

A

a good example of a broad host range

88
Q

Viral specificity

A

Virus is selective in the organisms it infects, the type of cells and disease it produces

89
Q

What is used to classify viruses

A

based on type and structure of nucleic acid genome
DNA or RNA genome
Double or single stranded
linear, circular or segmented

90
Q

Virus families

A

-viridae

are distinguished on the basis of nucleic acid type, capsid shape, presence of envelope and size

91
Q

RNA virus chromosomal arrangements

A

is a single strand, viruses do not have both + and –

92
Q

+ sense RNA viruses

A

during infection, RNA acts like mRNA and is translated

93
Q
  • sense RNA viruses
A

RNA acts as a template for the production of + sense RNA, must carry RNA polymerase with the virion

94
Q

Rhabdoviridae

A

sense RNA virus, enveloped, helical, 70-180nm in size, virion contains an RNA dependent RNA polymerase

95
Q

Rhabdoviridae Ex

A

Rabies virus

96
Q

Double stranded RNA viruses

A

one family with the virion, has segmented dsRNA

97
Q

RNA virus families

A

picornaviridae
retroviridae
rhabdoviridae

98
Q

Picornaviridae

A

+ sense RNA virus, naked, polyhedral shape, 18-30nm in size, translated to produce an RNA , dependent RNA polymerase

99
Q

Picornaviridae Ex

A

polio virus

100
Q

Retroviridae

A

+ sense virus, retro transcription, enveloped, spherical, nm in size, virion contains 2 copies of the genome and the enzyme reverse transcriptase (makes DNA from RNA template)

101
Q

Retroviridae Ex

A

provirus: before transcription, new DNA is incorporated into the host genome

102
Q

DNA virus families

A

grouped on basis of DNA structure, only one family has ssDNA

103
Q

Herpesviridae

A

linear dsDNA virus, enveloped, polyhedral, 120-200nm in size, viral dsDNA can exist as a provirus, causes latent infections

104
Q

Latent infections

A

virus remains in the host for a long time, can still replicate

105
Q

Viral, Bacteriophage and anvimal DNA virus replication steps

A 
Adsorption
Penetration
Synthesis
Maturation
Release
106
Q

Viral Adsorption

A

the attachment of viruses to host cells

107
Q

Viral Penetration

A

entry into host cells

108
Q

Viral synthesis

A

creation of new nucleic acid molecules, capsid proteins using the host’s metabolic matching

109
Q

Viral maturation

A

assembly of these components into infectious virions

110
Q

Viral release

A

departure of new virions, generally killing the cell

111
Q

T-even bacteriophage

A

dsDNA, complex, naked, capsid head collar

112
Q

T-even bacteriophage host Ex

A

E. Coli

113
Q

Bacteriophage adsorption

A

specific proteins on the tail fibers bind to specific receptors on host cells

114
Q

Bacteriophage penetration

A

Lysozyme weakens the cell wall, the tail sheath contracts, viral genome is “injected” from head into bacterial cell

115
Q

Bacteriophage synthesis

A

phage directs host cell to make phage products, bacterial DNA is disrupted

116
Q

Bacteriophage maturation

A

viral components are assembled into infectious virions

117
Q

Bacteriophage release

A

lytic phage lyse the host cell and inject neighboring cells

118
Q

Bacteriophage growth curve stages

A

Eclipse period
Latent period
Viral yield

119
Q

Bacteriophage growth curve eclipse period

A

spans from penetration through synthesis

120
Q

Bacteriophage growth curve latent period

A

spans from penetration to phage release

121
Q

Bacteriophage growth curve viral yield

A

number of viruses per injected cell

122
Q

Plaque assay

A

used to determine phage number

reported in pfu (plaque forming units)

123
Q

Plaques

A

clear areas where phage has infected host and surrounding cells

124
Q

Temperate bacteriophage

A

Lysogeny

Bacteriophage doesn’t kill host

125
Q

Lysogenic conversion

A

prevents adsorption of similar phage and biosynthesis of prophage

126
Q

Lysogenic prophage

A

produces proteins that repress viral replication

127
Q

Lysogenic induction

A

spontaneous or induced excision of prophage resulting in lytic cycle

128
Q

Animal DNA virus adsorption

A

enveloped viruses have spikes that bind receptors

129
Q

Animal DNA virus penetration

A

Nucleic acid and capsid enter cell

uses uncoating

130
Q

Animal DNA virus synthesis

A

Viral DNA genome is replicated and viral proteins are synthesized, viral proteins move to the nucleus where they combine with new viral DNA

131
Q

Animal DNA virus maturation

A

the complete virion is assembled; enveloped viruses bud through a host membrane where viral lipids and glycoproteins are present

132
Q

Animal DNA virus release

A

Budding of new virions does not necessarily kill the host cell

133
Q

Transcription

A

occurs before we express a protein, is the synthesis of a complimentary strand of RNA from a DNA template

134
Q

Translation

A

decodes the “language of nuclaic acids to proteins, occurs on the ribosome

135
Q

Translation steps

A

Initiation
Elongation
Termination

136
Q

Translation elongation steps

A

codon recognition
peptide bond formation
translation

137
Q

Polyribosome

A

transcription and translation occurring at the same time

138
Q

Genetic regulation of metabolism steps

A

enzyme induction

enzyme repression

139
Q

Enzyme reperssion

A

uses lac operons and trpoperons

140
Q

Operon consists of

A

Promoter sequence
operator
structural genes

141
Q

Enzyme repression: Operator

A

binds to repressor

142
Q

Enzyme repression: Structural genes

A

make a protein code for enzymes

143
Q

Lac operon without lactose

A

repressor bound to operator

144
Q

Lac operon with lactose

A

lactose is converted to allolactose

145
Q

allolactose

A

the inducer, binds to repressor and inactivates it so it no longer binds to the operator

146
Q

Trp operon

A

I gene makes an inactive repressor, default position is on

147
Q

Trp operon Tryptophan

A

acts as a co-repressor, tyrp binds to the repressor and activates it

148
Q

Trp + repressor

A

would bind to the operator and shut down transcription

149
Q

Bacteriophage

A

a virus that infects bacteria, nucleic acid core is covered by a protein coat

150
Q

Bacteriophage life cycle

A

2 possible outcomes:
lytic cycle
lysogenic cycle

151
Q

Bacteriophage lytic cycle

A

characteristics of virulent phages, the cell is lysed releasing hundreds of bacteriophages

152
Q

Bacteriophage lysogenic cycle

A

initiated by a temperate phage, phage is incorporated into bacterial chromosome and replicated with it

153
Q

Emerging viruses

A

increase in viral disease

154
Q

Emerging virus causes

A

previously endemic viruses can spread due to global warming
ex: delongue fever
tropical islands are farmed and contact viral vectors
ex: yellow fever
viral host range spread to other species, becomes a mutant virus not recognized by the immune system
ex: swine flu pandemic of 1918

155
Q

Bacteriophage structural components

A

Genome
tail sheath
plate and tail fibers

156
Q

Bacteriophage genome function

A

carries the genetic information necessary for replication of new phage particles

157
Q

Bacteriophage tail sheath function

A

retracts so that the genome can move from the head into the host cell’s cytoplasm

158
Q

Bacteriophage plate and tail fibers function

A

attach phage to specific receptor sites on the cell wall of a susceptible host bacterium

159
Q

Prophage

A

Phage genome is incorporated into host nucleic acid

160
Q

Lysogen

A

Bacterium and temperate phage

161
Q

Uncoating

A

enzymes digest the protein coat releasing the DNA

162
Q

RNA viruses examples

A

polio
HIV
both are + sense ssRNA

163
Q

Polio adsorption

A

naked viruses have proteins that bind to complementary proteins on the host

164
Q

Polio penetration/uncoating

A

most naked viruses enter the cell by endocytosis

165
Q

Polio synthesis

A

mRNA and viral proteins are produced, + sense RNA acts as template to make - sense RNA, -sense RNA is the template for making many copies of the + sense RNA viral genome

166
Q

Polio maturation

A

new virions are assembled in the cytoplasm

167
Q

Polio release

A

kills the host cell

168
Q

HIV adsorption

A

glycoprotein spikes in the envelope recognize protein receptors on the host cell surface

169
Q

HIV penetration/uncoating

A

fusion with the host

170
Q

HIV synthesis

A

2 copies of + sense RNA copied into ssDNA by reverse transcriptase, second strand of DNA is synthesized, dsDNA inserts into host cell genome as a provirus, provirus genes are transcribed and translated

171
Q

HIV maturation

A

2 copies of + sense RNA are packed into each capsid

172
Q

HIV release

A

mature HIV nucleocapsids bud from the plasma membrane

173
Q

Culturing animal viruses

A 
eggs
cell culture
primary cell culture
diploid fibroblast strains
continuous cell line
cytopathic effects
174
Q

Culturing-eggs

A

fertilized, intact eggs used to grow animal viruses, difficult to study cellular effects caused by viruses

175
Q

Cell culture

A

animal cells are grown in monolayers, animal cells are treated with proteolytic enzymes, cells can be subcultured after growth

176
Q

Primary cell culture

A

comes directly from the animal, cells usually divide a few times

177
Q

Diploid fibroblast strains

A

immature cells that produce collagen, derived from fetal tissue, retain capacity for repeated cell division

178
Q

Continuous cell line

A

will reproduce for extended number of cell divisions

ex: HeLa line = cervical cancer

179
Q

Cytopathic effects

A

CPE
visable effect viral infection has on cells
ex: cells change shape, detatch from culture container

180
Q

Virus effects

A

transformation

teratogenesis

181
Q

Viral transformation

A

another CPE caused by viruses, the conversion of normal cells to malignant ones

182
Q

Viral teratogenesis

A

induction of defects during embryonic development

183
Q

Teratogen

A

drug or agent that causes defects, viruses can act as teratogens
ex: CMV, HSV and rubella

184
Q

Virus like agents

A

viroids

prions

185
Q

Viroids

A

infectious RNA particles smaller than a virus, no protein products are produced, disrupt host cell metabolism, cause lethal plant diseases

186
Q

Prions

A

proteinaceous particles, proteins exist in normal form and prions proteins stick together and eventually kill cells

187
Q

Tumor or neoplasm

A

localized accumulation of cells

188
Q

HPV

A

human papillomavirus, causes cancer, dsDNA, exists as a provirus, production of excess viral replication protein causes uncontrolled cell growth

189
Q

Cancer from a virus

A

15% of cancer comes from a virus, discovered in 1911

190
Q

Oncogenes

A

a gene that causes uncontrolled cell growth

191
Q

Proto-oncogenes

A

a normal gene that when under the control of a virus can act as an oncogene

Microbiology (6 decks)

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