Methods: Interviews Flashcards
Structured or Formal Interviews
Essentially a verbal questionnaire. The interviewer is given strict standardised instructions on how to ask questions in precisely the same way, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice, ect. for each participant.
Unstructured or Informal Interviews (discovery interviews)
Are like a guided conversation where the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order ect. from one interview to the next - pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate and relevant, asking follow-up questions to probe in greater depth.
Group Interviews
Although most interviews are one-to-one, some are group interviews with up to 12-15 people being interviewed together. Focus groups are a form of group interview in which the researcher asks a group to discuss certain topics and records their views.
Willis (1977) - group interviews
Willis used group interviews as part of his research into anti-school subcultures.
What are Interviews?
Interviews represent something of a compromise between the more structured research methods such as questionnaires and the very unstructured in-depth methods such as participant observation. Although there are different types of interview based on the sociologists theoretical preferences - they are all based on social interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Advantages of Structured Interviews:
Practical:
Training interviewers is straightforward. Surveys using SI can cover a large sample. Results are easily quantified as questions are usually closed and pre-coded. Therefore, suitable for hypothesis testing.
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews:
Practical
Training is more costly than for questionnaires. Cannot cover a sample as large as questionnaires can.
Advantages of Structured Interviews:
Response Rate
SIs usually have a high response rate as people find it hard to turn down a face to face request. This increases chances of a representative sample and therefore provides a basis for making generalisations.
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews:
Response Rate
Those who participate may be atypical. This would produce unrepresentative data and undermine the validity of the generalisations made.
Advantages of Structured Interviews:
Reliability
Viewed as reliable because they are standardised and controlled and can therefore be repeated. Another researcher following the same interview procedure should get the same results. Answers can easily be compared and similarities and differences identified.
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews:
Validity
Critics of SI argue that, like questionnaires, the closed questions reduce the validity of the responses is restricted. They may not be provided with a relevant pre-coded answer and there is little scope to clarify misunderstandings. Because an interview is a social interaction, there is always the risk that the presence of a researcher will impact on the answers.
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews:
Inflexibility
Suffer from inflexibility of having standardised questions and predetermined responses. Means that new areas of interest or lines of questioning cannot be explored.
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews:
Feminist Criticisms
In SI, the researcher is dominant and in control of the interview. Feminists argue that this mirrors women’s subordination in wider society, particularly in female interviewee feels intimidated by the research experience. Feminists favour unstructured interviews which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust, empathy, and support.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Rapport and Senitivity
The informality of unstructured interviews allows the researcher to develop a rapport with the interviewee. This will put the interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up. Unstructured interviews are useful for studying sensitive issues because the empathy and encouragement of the interviewer can help the participant feel more comfortable.
Rapport
Where a conversation represents a relationship of trust and understanding with the interviewee.
How did Dobash and Dobash use Unstructured Interviews?
Dobash and Dobash used unstructured Interviews to study domestic violence.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
The interviewee’s view
Unlike SI, UI provide great freedom and scope for the interviewee to speak about things they think are relevant to research in their own terms. As a result they are more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data. The researcher’s probing can help formulate and develop interviewees’ thoughts more clearly.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Checking understanding
The interviewer and participant can check meanings and follow up questions can clarify any misunderstandings.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Flexibility
The researcher can formulate new ideas, themes, questions and hypotheses and put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Exploring unfamiliar topics
Because questions are open-ended and exploratory as in an ordinary conversation, researchers can start the interview with relatively little subject knowledge on the issue being researched. Some sociologists use Unstructured Interviews as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Practical
As they are in-depth, they take a long time to conduct which limits the number that can be carried out. This means the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with the large numbers that can be researched using SIs and questionnaires.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Practical - Training/Interviewer
Training needs to be more thorough for a researcher to recognise a sociologically valid point and probe it further, than for someone conducting SIs. This adds to the cost of UIs. Interviewers need good interpersonal skills so they can establish the necessary rapport central to gaining full insight and honest responses.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Reliability
UIs are not reliable as they are not standardised - each interview is unique. Therefore it is impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check findings.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Representativeness
Samples will rarely be representative due to the smaller number of interviews that can be conducted. Therefore it is difficult to make generalisations.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Quantification
Because questions are open, they cannot be quantified. This means that they are not useful for hypothesis testing, which positivists prefer.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Validity
UIs are generally seen as producing valid data. However, critics argue that because they are interactive, the presence of the researcher may colour or distort the information obtained.
The Interview as a Social Interaction
All interviews involve social interaction. The danger thus, is that the interviewee may be responding not to the questions asked, but to the social situation in which they are asked. Social interaction can threaten the validity of interviews.
Interviews as a Social Interaction:
Interviewer Bias
Interviewers may consciously or unconsciously influence the answer of the respondent by their facial expression, body language, by asking leading questions, or by their tone of voice. A source of interviewer bias is also where the interviewer identifies too closely with the participants.
Oakley (1982) - Interviewer Bias
Oakley admitted that as a mother herself, she found it difficult to remain detached and neutral when she was interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth.
Interviews as Social Interaction:
Artificiality
Even the most relaxed interview is still and interview and not quite a normal conversation; under these artificial conditions, it is sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers can be gained. Follow up interviews help to check and improve the validity of answers gained.
Interviews as Social Interaction:
Power Inequalities
Inequalities between the interviewer and the interviewee may impact on the interviewee’s honesty or willingness to answer. In general the bigger the status difference the less valid the data.
Interviews as Social Interaction:
Social Status Inequalities
Social class, age, gender, and ethnic differences can shape and impact interviews. Wherever possible researchers will try to ensure that the interviewers and interviewees are closely matched in terms of social status.
Rich (1968)
Found that when adults interview children, the child’s need to please the adult interviewer will affect the validity of their answers.
Interviews as Social Interaction:
Cultural Differences
Cultural differences may lead to misunderstandings as a result of different meanings being attached to words and disconnects between the interviewer and participant in terms of literacy. Therefore researchers must ensure that interviewee and interviewer are culturally matched.
Interviews as Social Interaction:
Social Desirability Effect:
In social interaction, people often seek approval. This may be relevant in interviews as interviewees may provide answers to present themselves in a positive light. They may not want to appear ignorant or uninteresting, so may offer any answer rather than none at all or fail to ask for clarification if they don’t understand.
Interviews as Social Interaction:
Ethical Issues
Interviews are ethical, however, the interviewee could feel under pressure to answer questions.
Advantages of Group Interviews:
Representativeness
Multiple Group Interviews are more representative because they allow a larger sample size overall. This enhances the likelihood of being able to generalise findings
Advantages of Group Interviews:
Practical
Less time consuming and more cost effective than one to one interviews.
Advantages of Group Interviews:
Discussion
There is more open discussion as people can stimulate each others responses. People may also feel more comfortable speaking up when supported by their peers.
Advantages of Group Interviews;
Less artificial
Allows researcher to analyse group dynamics, and observations can be made in less artificial environment. Less intimidating atmosphere to participants. The group setting represents a more accurate microcosm of society.
Disadvantages of Group Interviews:
Intimidation
Some people may be intimidated by being in a group. People may feel less willing or able to speak about personal issues in front of a group.
Disadvantages of Group Interviews:
Representativeness
Findings may only reflect the vocal dominant authority. Some interviewees may be more likely to respond than others which distorts the representativeness.
Disadvantages of Group Interviews:
Validity
The validity of the interviews is called into question because of conformity. Some people might go with the group instead of actually stating their true opinions.
Disadvantages of Group Interviews:
Representativeness
Harder to repeat in the exact same conditions.
