Education: Gender Differences and Gender Subject Choice

Question 1

62% of girls could

Answer 1

concentrate without supervision for 10 minuets compared with 49% of all boys.

Question 2

External factors for the Gender Gap:

The impact of Feminism

Answer 2

Helped bring about legal changes and promoted equal opportunities.
Raise girls expectations and ambitions.
Girls rethink self-image, so they no longer see themselves as the traditional wife or mother.

Question 3

External factors for the Gender Gap:

Changes in employment

Answer 3

Changes in legislation.
(Equal Pay Act 1970, Sex Discrimination Act 1975) Females see their future in terms of paid work.
Women understand the necessity of qualifications.
Girls benefitted from exposure to more successful career women who act as positive role models.

Question 4

External factors for the Gender Gap:

Changes in ambitions

Answer 4

Major change in the way girls see themselves.
Girls no longer feel the need to fill a traditional homemaker role.

Question 5

Sharpe (1974)

Answer 5

Research conducted in 1974 found that girls viewed educational success as unfeminine and had low aspirations, with marriage being their main goal.
Repeated research 1994 with simple sample, and found great change in priorities.
Findings show major change in the way girls see themselves.

Question 6

Francis (2001)

Answer 6

Girls are rejecting the traditional female role and understand the importance of education.

Question 7

External factors for the Gender Gap:

Changes in the family

Answer 7

Increase in divorce, cohabitation and SPFs have impacted on girls attitudes to education.
Girls recognise they need to take on more of a breadwinner role.
Encourages girls to look to themselves and their own qualifications to be financially independent.

Question 8

Internal factors for the Gender Gap:

Equal opportunities policies

Answer 8

• Teachers are more sensitive to the need to avoid gender stereotyping.
• Belief that girls and boys are equally capable and entitled is mainstream thinking in education.
• Policies such as GIST and WISE encourage girls to pursue careers in non-traditional areas.
• National curriculum made girls and boys study mostly the same subjects.

Question 9

Internal factors for the Gender Gap:

Positive role models in schools

Answer 9

Increase in proportion of female teachers and head teachers.
Qualified women in professional positions may act as role models for girls.
Primary schools in particular have become ‘feminised’, with virtually all-female staff, could influence pupils into seeing schooling as a ‘female’ activity, contributing to boys underachievement.

Question 10

Internal factors for the Gender Gap:

GCSE and coursework

Answer 10

Changes in the way pupils are assessed have favoured girls and disadvantages boys.
Girls are more successful at coursework because they are better organised and better at keeping deadlines.

Question 11

Gorard (2005)

Answer 11

The gender gap in achievement was constant from 1975 to 1989.
In 1989, GCSEs (and coursework) were introduced, which girls benefit from.
There are also more oral exams, which girls benefit from as they have better developed language skills.

Question 12

Mitsos and Brown (1989) - Coursework

Answer 12

Conclude that girls are more successful at coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised, spending more time on it and are better at meeting coursework deadlines.

Question 13

Elwood (2005)

Answer 13

Argues that although coursework has some influence, exams are more important in terms of final grades and girls do better in exams than boys.

Question 14

Internal factors for the Gender Gap:

Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum

Answer 14

The removal of gender stereotypes and sexist images from textbooks, reading schemes, and other learning materials has removed a barrier to girls’ achievement.

Question 15

Internal factors for the Gender Gap:

Teacher expectations

Answer 15

Teachers spend more time with boys because they attract more reprimands.
Boys dominated whole-class discussion, and gained more opportunity to speak.
The way teachers interacted with girls was more positive and focused around schoolwork rather than behaviour in boys which attracts negative attention from teachers.

Question 16

Internal factors for the Gender Gap:

Selection and league tables

Answer 16

Marketisation has created a more competitive climate where schools see girls as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results.
Girls are more attractive to schools which creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where girls have greater likelihood of doing well.

Question 17

Slee (1998)

Answer 17

Notes that boys are less attractive to schools and are are four times more likely to be excluded. As a result, boys are more likely to be perceived as a ‘liability’.

Question 18

Jackson (1998) -League Tables

Answer 18

Believes that high achieving girls are attractive to schools as they can boost a schools league table position, whereas low achieving boys are not. This creates self fulfilling prophecy because if girls are likely to be recruited to good schools, they have a greater likelihood of doing well.

Question 19

Swann and Graddol (1994) - Gendered Self-Fulfilling prophecy

Answer 19

Found boys are generally more boisterous and attract teacher’s gaze more than girls. Boys dominate whole-class discussion, whereas girls were better at listening and cooperating. Found that the way teachers interacted with girls was more positive and focused around school work rather than behaviour in boys which attracts negative attention from teachers. This could lead to a positive self-fulfilling prophecy with girls and a negative one in boys.

Question 20

French and French (1993) - Attention

Answer 20

Argue attention given to girls and boys is quite similar and on occasions where boys are given more attention it’s usually because they attract more reprimands.

Question 21

Spender (1983)

Answer 21

Teachers spend more time with boys and that they are able to demand more of the teachers’ time and gain more attention.

Question 22

Symbolic capital

Answer 22

Feminists explain one reason for WC girls achieving less than MC girls is a conflict between WC girls feminine identities and the values and ethos of the school.
Performing their working-class feminine identities, the girls gained symbolic capital from their peers. However this brings conflict with the school.

Question 23

Hyper-heterosexual feminine identities

Answer 23

WC girls invested considerable time, money, and effort in constructing ‘desirable’ and ‘glamorous’ hyper-heterosexual feminine identities, that combined black urban American styles with unisex sportswear and ‘sexy’ clothes.
This brought status from their female peer group and avoided them being ridiculed or called a ‘tramp’.
However this led to the school ‘othering’ the girls - defining them as incapable of educational success and thus less worthy of respect.

Question 24

Archer et al (2010)

Answer 24

In her study of working-class girls, used concept of symbolic capital to understand the conflict between working-class girls’ feminine identities and the values and ethos of the school.
Found that by performing their WC feminine identities, girls gained symbolic capital from their peers.

Question 25

Archer

Answer 25

Identifies strategies that the girls followed for creating a valued sense of self. Included adopting a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity, having a boyfriend, and being loud.

Question 26

According to Archer the ‘ideal female pupil’ identity is

Answer 26

de-sexualised, and middle-class which excludes many working-class girls.

Question 27

Symbolic Capital: Boyfriends (Archer)

Answer 27

While having a boyfriend brought symbolic capital, it got in the way of schoolwork and lowering girls’ aspirations.
Includes loosing interest in going to university, studying ‘masculine subjects’ or gaining a professional career.
Instead girls aspire to ‘settle down’, have children, and work locally in feminine jobs.

Question 28

WC girls dilemma (Archer)

Answer 28

Argues WC girls’ feminine identities and educational success conflict with one another and the former leads to underachievement in the latter.
WC gils’ therefore faced with the dilemma of either gaining symbolic capital from their peers by conforming to hyper-sexual feminine identity or gaining educational capital by rejecting this.
Some tried to resolve this dilemma by defining themselves as ‘good underneath’, reflecting their struggle to achieve a sense of self-worth.

Question 29

Evans - WC Girls and University

Answer 29

Found that girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power to help their families rather than themselves.
‘Caring’ aspect of WC feminine identity produces a desire to live at home with families while studying.
Economic necessity was a further reason for living at home and studying at a local university.
Living at home limited their choice of university, decreasing the market value of their degree and self-excluding from elite universities.

Question 30

Symbolic Capital: Being ‘loud’ (Archer)

Answer 30

Some WC girls adopt ‘loud’ feminine identities which often led them to be outspoken, independent and assertive, for example questioning teacher authority. Failure to conform to School stereotype of ideal female pupil brought conflict with teachers, who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive.

Question 31

Reasons’ for boys underachievement:

Boys and literacy

Answer 31

According to the DCSF (2007) the gender gap is mainly the result of boys’ poorer literacy and language skills which is likely to affect boys’ performance across a wide range of skills.
Reflects reality that parents spend less time reading to their sons.
Another could be mothers do most of the reading, so it becomes viewed as a feminine activity.

Question 32

Edwards and David (2000) - Primary Socialisation

Answer 32

Argue boys mature more slowly than girls because primary socialisation encourages boys to be more boisterous and attention-seeking.
May lead to a lack of concentration in class.

Question 33

Burns and Bracey (2001) - Socialisation

Answer 33

Found that socialisation of boys may lead to over-confidence. Boys are often surprised when they fail exams and tend to put failure down to bad luck, not lack of effort.

Question 34

Reasons’ for boys underachievement:

Globalisation and the decline of traditional male jobs

Answer 34

Since 1980s decline in heavy industries, engineering and manufacturing as a consequence of globalisation of the economy, has led to much manufacturing relocating to developing countries.
Traditionally, these sectors of the economy employed males. Decline in male employment has led to ‘identity crisis in men’.

Question 35

Mitsos and Browne (1998)
(male employment)

Answer 35

Claim decline in male employment opportunities has led to an ‘identity crisis’ for men, where they recognise they are less likely to occupy the traditional breadwinner role.
Has had a negative impact on boys’ motivation in school.

Question 36

Sewell (2006)

Answer 36

Argues education has become ‘feminised’. Schools do not nurture ‘masculine’ traits such as competitiveness and leadership.
This arguably puts boys off education. Sees coursework as a major cause of gender differences in achievement as boys do less well in coursework-based subjects as they are generally less organised than girls.

Question 37

Reasons’ for boys underachievement:

Shortage of male primary school teachers

Answer 37

Increasing lack of strong positive male role models both at home and school.
Feminisation of primary schools puts boys at a disadvantage.

Question 38

Francis (2006) and Read (2008)

Answer 38

Critique of sewell and the ‘feminisation’ of schools argument.
2/3 of 7-8 year olds did not think that the gender of their teacher was relevant.

Question 39

YouGov (2007) poll

Answer 39

Found 39% of 8-11 year-old boys do not have any lessons with a male teacher.
Most boys surveyed said presence of a male teacher made them behave better and 42% said it made them work harder.

Question 40

Reasons’ for boys underachievement:

Internal

Answer 40

Laddish subcultures.
Shortage of male primary school teachers.
Feminisation of education.
Teacher Expectations
Coursework and GCSEs

Question 41

Reasons’ for boys underachievement:

External

Answer 41

Literacy.
Globalisation and decline of traditional male jobs.
Primary Socialisation.

Question 42

Epstein (1998) - Masculinity

Answer 42

Examined construction of masculinity within school.
WC boys are more likely to be harassed and labelled, subjected to homophobic verbal abuse if they are studious and appear as ‘swots’.

Question 43

Francis (2001) - Laddish Culture

Answer 43

Found boys viewed being called a ‘swot’ as a threat to their masculinity. Argues laddish culture is becoming increasingly widespread as girls move into traditional masculine careers, many boys become increasingly ‘laddish’ in their effort to construct themselves as non-feminine and as a result of negative teacher labelling.

Question 44

McVeigh (2001) - Evaluative point

Answer 44

Similarities in girls’ and boys’ achievement are far greater than the differences, especially when compared with social class or ethnic differences.

Question 45

Francis and Skelton (2011)

Answer 45

Found girls on FSMs continue to underperform in relation to girls and boys not on FSMs, drawing attention to the fact that while gender does influence achievement, the extent of this influence depends on pupil class and ethnicity.

Question 46

Connolly (2006) - Interactions effect

Answer 46

Suggests there may be an ‘interactions effect’, so certain combinations of gender, class, and ethnicity have more effect than others.
Interplay of class, gender, and ethnicity. Main concern is underachievement of WC boys.

Question 47

Oakley (1973) - Gendered Subject Choice

Answer 47

Gender role socialisation contributes towards gendered subject choice.

Question 48

Norman (1988) - Early Socialisation

Answer 48

Observes from an early age girls and boys are treated very differently, given different toys and encouraged to take part in different activities.
This can channel development and interest in different subjects and careers.

Question 49

Bryne (1979) - Teacher Expectations

Answer 49

Schools reinforce gendered socialisation.
Teachers’ expectations are gendered, they encourage girls to be quiet, passive, helpful, clean, and tidy. Boys are expected to be tough, rough, and noisy.

Question 50

Murphy and Elwood (1998) - Subject Choice

Answer 50

Argue that gendered socialisation patterns influence subject choice.

Question 51

Browne and Ross (1991) - Gender Domains

Answer 51

Argue children’s beliefs about ‘gender domains’ are shaped by early experiences - children are more confident engaging in tasks they see as part of their gender domain. This influences what subjects are seen as ‘girl’ and ‘boy’.

Question 52

Explanations of Gendered Subject choice:

Early Socialisation

Answer 52

Early socialisation establishes the tasks girls and boys see as male or female ‘territory’. Girls and boys are treated differently from an early age through gendered toys and different activities which can channel development and interest.

Question 53

Explanations of Gendered Subject choice:

Gendered Subject Images

Answer 53

The gender image a subject ‘gives off’ affects who will want to choose it.
For example, science is seen as a boys’ subject. Science teachers tend to be male and examples in textbooks draw on boys’ experiences.

Question 54

Kelly (1984)

Answer 54

Argues science is seen as a boys’ subject because most science teachers are male; boys monopolise the lab equipment; textbooks draw upon boys’ experiences.

Question 55

DfES study (2007)

Answer 55

Found pupils who attend single-sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images.

Question 56

Leonard (2006)

Answer 56

Found that compared to pupils in mixed schools, girls’ in girls’ schools were much more likely to take Maths and Science A-levels.
Boys’ in boys’ schools also much more likely to take English and Modern languages.

Question 57

Explanations of Gendered Subject choice:

Peer-Pressure

Answer 57

Peer response can be very influential. Absence of peer pressure from single-sex schools explains why girls’ in girls’ schools are more likely to choose traditional boys’ subjects.
The absence of boys may mean less pressure on girls to conform to restrictive gender subject stereotypes.

Question 58

Paetcher (1998)

Answer 58

Pupils see sport as mainly falling within the male gender domain, girls who are ‘sporty’ have to cope with an image contradicting the conventional stereotype.
May explain why girls are more likely than boys to opt out of sport.

Question 59

Explanations of Gendered Subject choice:

Gendered career opportunities

Answer 59

Women are concentrated in a narrow range of occupations and ‘women’s jobs often involve similar work to that performed by housewives.
The sex-typing of occupations affects girls’ and boys’ ideas about what kinds of job are possible or acceptable.
For example, if boys get the message that nursery nurses are women, they will less likely opt for a career in childcare.
Explains why vocational courses are more gender specific, since they are by definition linked more to career plans.
Has major implications for for the continuation of the gendered nature of the labour market.

Question 60

1/2 all women’s employment falls within four categories

Answer 60

Clerical
Secretarial
Personal services
Cleaning occupations

Question 61

Connell (1995)

Answer 61

Argues that the school reproduces ‘hegemonic masculinity’, meaning the dominance of heterosexual masculine identity and the subordination of female and gay identities.
‘A rich vocabulary of abuse’ is used by pupils to police one another’s sexual identities through negative labels.
Name-calling acts as a form of social control to make girls conform to make expectations.

Question 62

Feminists argue that experiences in school act as a form of social control to reproduce the patriarchy. This happens in several ways:

Answer 62

Verbal abuse
Teachers
The Male Gaze
Double standards
Female peer groups - policing identity

Question 63

Lees (1986)

Answer 63

Notes boys’ call girls ‘slags’ if they appear sexually available, but there is no equivalent term for males.

Question 64

Mac an Ghaill (1992)

Answer 64

Found anti-school WC boys’ subcultures use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity.
Called WC boys who worked hard ‘dickhead achievers’ and boys ‘gay’ for being friendly towards teachers or girls.

Question 65

Haywood and Mac and Ghaill (1996)

Answer 65

Found that male teachers reinforced gender identities by telling off boys for ‘behaving like girls’ and ignoring boys’ verbal abuse of girls.

Question 66

Askew and Ross (1988)

Answer 66

Argue that male teachers behaviour can subtly reinforce gender stereotypes.
For example ‘rescuing’ female colleagues from a disruptive class.

Question 67

The male gaze

Answer 67

Visual form of social control where male pupils and teachers look at girls as sexual objects.
Boys who don’t participate in this form of surveillance may be labelled as ‘gay’.

Question 68

Double standards

Answer 68

Exist where moral standards are applied to one group reflecting patriarchal ideology.

Question 69

Lees (1993)

Answer 69

Found that boys boast about their sexual exploits and conquests, but girls are labelled negatively for the same behaviour.

Question 70

Archer (2010)

Answer 70

Found that working class girls gain symbolic capital by performing a hyper-heterosexual identity. Female peers’ police this identity and girls’ risk being called a ‘tramp’ if they fail to conform.