Methods Exam 2

Question 1

What are the three types of multiple baseline designs?

Answer 1

1. Across individuals or groups of individuals. Most common and most reliable. Behaviors need not be independent and no need to worry about generalization.
2. Across behaviors. The behaviors must be independent. That means they are not members of the same response class (at the moment). Try to select very different baseline that appear unrelated.
3. Across situations. Hope the stimulus control does not generalize to the other situation.

Question 2

What is the difference between a concurrent and non-concurrent multiple baseline design?

Answer 2

In a concurrent multiple baseline data are being collected for all baselines each day. In a non-concurrent multiple baseline data are not collected concurrently and may even be collected sequentially.

Question 3

What are two advantages of a multiple baseline design?

Answer 3

1.Do not require a reversal.

2. Sometimes there are clinical and ethical reasons not to reverse

Question 4

What is the most commonly used replication based research design (not counting the AB designs)?

Answer 4

The multiple baseline design.

Question 5

What is a major pitfall of the multiple baseline across behaviors design?

Answer 5

The behaviors need to be independent. If they are members of the same response class or chained together it will not work.

Question 6

What is the major pitfall of the multiple baseline across situations or settings design?

Answer 6

It will not work if there is generalization across the settings. Sometimes common elements such as the presence of the same person in both setting can produce generalization across settings.

Question 7

Why would you add a return to baseline condition to a multiple baseline design?

Answer 7

To determine whether the effects of the treatment actually maintain.

Question 8

Define a counterbalance multiple baseline design that compares treatment B, C and B+C.

Answer 8

In one set you would begin with baseline (the A condition), then introduce treatment B alone, then introduce the two treatments together (treatment B+ treatment C) and in the other set you would follow the sequence baseline (A), followed by treatment C, followed by B+C.

Question 9

How you would define a multi-element design (alternating treatments design).

Answer 9

Both treatments are given each day with the order of treatment being determined randomly each day

Question 10

Why is the multi-element design (sometimes called an alternating treatments design) usually the best design to use when you wish to compare the efficacy of two treatments?

Answer 10

It reduces the impact of variables that may vary daily but this is not the same as controlling these variables.

Question 11

What is a functional analysis of a behavior?

Answer 11

A short research study to determine the reinforcer maintaining a particular behavior

Question 12

What is a structural analysis of a behavior?

Answer 12

Examining when, where, in the presence of whom, and situations associated with a behavior

Question 13

What are the three steps in performing a functional analysis?

Answer 13

a. Perform an ABC analysis to determine Antecedents and Consequences associated with the behavior.

b. Interview people who are familiar with the problem

c. Perform an experimental analysis of the problem behavior using a behavior analysis research design

Question 14

Which Behavior Analysis design is most commonly used in performing a functional analysis?

Answer 14

The multi-element.

Question 15

What are the four types of functional analysis experimental approaches?

Answer 15

1) Vary suspected MO e.g., high attention low attention, or difficult work vs. easy work

2) Reinforcement vs. extinction for each potential function.

3) Reinforcement of the behavior vs. reinforcement for the absence of the behavior (DRO or omission training)

4) Reinforcement of one behavior or reinforcement of an incompatible behavior

Question 16

What should you suspect if the behavior occurs under all conditions?

Answer 16

That it is a source of automatic reinforcement or sensory reinforcement is in effect.

Question 17

How could you isolate the source of the sensory reinforcement?

Answer 17

By presenting one potential source of sensory reinforcement at a time.

Question 18

What are some Motivating Operations for aggressive behaviors?

Answer 18

Cancelling a reinforcing event, punishment and extinction.

Question 19

What should you do if more than one reinforcer is maintaining the behavior.

Answer 19

Design an intervention that addresses all of the reinforcers.

Question 20

Sidman attacks the statistical approach by questioning whether any experimental results are ever the results of chance. What is Sidman’s concern with the use of the term chance to explain variability and what alternative does he present?

Answer 20

Unless you believe that behavior is chaotic and not lawful, chance refers to the effects of unknown or uncontrolled variables. We must find the important variable in a situation, and if they are not the object of study to control them. Then it is possible to exercise sufficient experimental control to determine the relationships between the environment and behavior.

Question 21

What do we mean when we ask whether data are reliable?

Answer 21

If repeated, will the experiment yield the same results?

Question 22

What is the generality of a behavioral phenomenon?

Answer 22

The generality of a phenomena refers to the range of conditions under which the phenomena will occur. It specifies the boundary conditions of the effect.

Question 23

List and define the four types of generality that Sidman discusses?

Answer 23

a) Intra-species generality- How representative the results of an experiment with an organism of one species will relate to another organism of the same species?

b) Inter-species generality- How well the results of an experiment with an organism of one species generalize to an organism of another species?

c) Generality of Variable- We need to determine the boundary conditions of a phenomenon. Does the IV of interest have the same effect if we alter other variables?

d) Generality of Process- Does a process that involves the interaction of several basic principles generalize across species, etc.

Question 24

Define intrasubject replication.

Answer 24

Replication with the same subject.

Question 25

Define inter-subject replication.

Answer 25

Replication with a different subject.

Question 26

If you replicated a finding several times with one subject but obtained a different finding with another subject, which stood up to intrasubject replication, what are three possible reasons for obtaining different results?

Answer 26

a. A confounding variable is present.

b. Different history responsible for the different results

c. The experimenter has not yet determined the shape of the functional relations and may be hitting the two different subjects at a different point on the curve.

Question 27

What source of error is not present in intrasubject replication?

Answer 27

Inter-subject, or between subject, variability.

Question 28

If you are using intrasubject replication, what are two ways to increase the sensitivity of your study?

Answer 28

A. By controlling as many variables as possible.
B. Also increase the strength of your treatment.

Question 29

According to Sidman, what leads to poor experimental control?

Answer 29

poor experimental control techniques. If you fail to control relevant variables and these variables vary from day to day the behavior will vary from day to day. If you haven’t tracked down important sources of variability you don’t see these variables changing and conclude that it is “random or chance variation.”

Question 30

Why is it important to perform experiments to determine the conditions under which a phenomenon occurs?

Answer 30

Increases the generality of a phenomena. It helps us to understand the interrelationship of variables and it allows us to effectively use the phenomenon as a baseline to study other variables.

Question 31

What must be done to increase experimental control?

Answer 31

We must identify, isolate, and control sources of variability.

Question 32

What should be assumed when a large degree of variability is observed in the data? How does this result represent an opportunity?

Answer 32

there is a powerful uncontrolled variable present. This represents an opportunity to identify this variable and control it. Controlling this variable will result in better experimental control

Question 33

List 5 reasons for performing an experiment.

Answer 33

1. Testing a theory
2. Examining potential functional relations
3. Developing new control techniques
4. Systematic replication
5. Trying out a new method or technique

Question 34

Why is it important to separate data from your purpose in collecting it?

Answer 34

If you hold onto your hypothesis too closely you may develop tunnel vision and miss accidental discoveries. You need to remember that the most important purpose of a study is to understand how the environment influences behavior. In this regard all well controlled studies yield positive results.

Question 35

What is a major advantage of studies performed to indulge the investigator’s curiosity about nature?

Answer 35

They will reveal observations and knowledge not formally known. These observations hen lead to other questions and answers. They never produce negative results

Question 36

How do theories typically emerge from studies designed to indulge the investigator’s curiosity?

Answer 36

Inductively. Functional relationships between variables are first determined sets of relations linked together in theories.

Question 37

What are some advantages of bringing an area of concern like depression into the laboratory?

Answer 37

You can better control variables and produce experimental control

Question 38

What are some problems with treating all subjects alike?

Answer 38

It is also the case that one level of the treatment cuts the curve of different subjects at different points. If you know this you need to treat them differently to get a similar effect. You also have to wait for behavior to stabilize before introducing a treatment. Different subjects will take a different amount of time before behavior stabilizes.

Question 39

What is the main purpose of systematic replication?

Answer 39

To determine the level of generality of a particular finding.

Question 40

What is a probe measure and what is it useful for?

Answer 40

The probe technique is a method used to get a snapshot of some aspect of a behavior change. A probe involves making a brief change in a variable to determine the effect.

Question 41

Why is it impossible to control variables through the use of statistics?

Answer 41

Statistical techniques only hide the effects of an uncontrolled variables. They only randomly distribute them. You can only control variability by controlling sources of variability.

Question 42

Why is it futile to attempt to increase control by testing additional subjects? What effect will testing large numbers of subjects have on experimental control?

Answer 42

Using additional subjects allow you to detect a smaller effect but the additional subjects have no influence on the level of experimental control and will not identify the important variables that are causing the variability in the behavior of interest.

Question 43

Why are parametric data useful in behavior analysis?

Answer 43

Parametric data show us the shape of the function. The function for several individuals may have the same shape, but they may peak at different points. Once you have the function you can see that what appeared to be differences in effects of the same variable on different subjects was really the result of the IV hitting those different subjects at different points on the curve.

Question 44

What are two direct behavioral methods to increase variability?

Answer 44

Introduce an extinction phase or directly reinforce variability of the response

Question 45

Describe a repeated measures group design?

Answer 45

Collect baseline data once for all members of the treatment and control group, introduce the treatment for the treatment group. Then measure all members in the treatment and control group a second time.

Question 46

Why is it not possible to determine whether the treatment worked for all member of the treatment group?

Answer 46

Because you only have one baseline and one treatment data point. Because the level of variation in individual data is unknown you cannot be sure whether any difference is the result of the treatment or natural variation.

Question 47

How can you embed a longitudinal approach into a repeated measures group design?

Answer 47

By collecting additional baseline and treatment data for all members of the treatment group.

Question 48

What would be one weakness of this approach?

Answer 48

Because everyone would receive the treatment at the same time you could not wait for a level baseline for each individual.

Question 49

How could you further strengthen such a design?

Answer 49

By treating the control group after you treat the treatment group. This would produce an embedded multiple baseline design.

Question 50

Define Research.

Answer 50

A systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.

Question 51

Define Human Subject.

Answer 51

A living individual about whom an investigator conducting research obtains data through intervention or interaction with the individual, or identifiable private information.

Question 52

Why is ethics so important in research and clinical practice?

Answer 52

Because people are capable of horrible acts without some method to insure ethical practice.

Question 53

What three important finding of the Belmont Report?

Answer 53

Respect for the person’s individual autonomy and protection of individuals with reduced autonomy.
Beneficence by insuring maximizing benefit and minimizing harm;
Guiding principles cannot be inferred from efficacy alone, such as benefits to some at the expense of others, or a prevailing ideology, or culture.

Question 54

What are four threats to ethical behavior?

Answer 54

1. Utilitarianism Applied to People – Treating people as objects or things with. Viewing a persons worth as what they can contribute.
2. Scientism – Places science as the highest value. At the extreme end it puts answering scientific questions above other considerations.
3. Rationalization – Biased justification of our behavior. We are prone toward doing this.
4. The Greater Good – This one goes with making a perfect world. Essentially it is the ends justify the means.

Question 55

Can we have a Science of Ethics?

Answer 55

Determining what behaviors to value are not likely within the realm of science.

Question 56

Name four benefits of the HSIRB process.

Answer 56

1. It affirms respect for the dignity of each person
2. It contributes to public trust of research
3. It protects researchers
   Reduces the probability of incidents

Question 57

What are the four principles of the Canadian ethical code arranged from most to least importance

Answer 57

1. Respect for the Dignity of the Person
2. Responsible Caring
3. Integrity in Relationships
4. Responsibility to Society

Question 58

What is the relationship between benefits and risk in research and in clinical practice?

Answer 58

Benefits should always out way risks in research and in clinical practice. Although research can have risks, they should be understood by the participant and should be outweighed by the potential benefits.

Question 59

Lists several types of risk.

Answer 59

Risks to safety, Psychological risks, Social risks, Economic risks, Criminal or Civil Liability, Biomedical risks.

Question 60

List several potential benefits of research.

Answer 60

Health

Psychosocial

Economic (can be seen as coercive if they are large)

Question 61

List four practices for handling risks.

Answer 61

1. Providing anonymity or protecting confidentiality.
2. Avoiding coercion
3. Monitoring risk
4. Balancing risks against benefits

Question 62

Why is the consent process so important?

Answer 62

Because the participants need to be able to decide whether the benefits out weight the risks to make an informed decision.

Question 63

What are four ways to ensure potential participants understand the benefits and risks involved in participation?

Answer 63

1. Ensure they have the legal and mental capacity to make a decision.
2. Determine whether they can describe the benefits and risk in their own words.
3. The language used should be age and educationally appropriate.
4. Ensure here is no coercion or undue influence.

Question 64

What is a consent waiver?

Answer 64

A waiver that allows one to not obtain consent. Typically used for benign surveys where requiring consent may deter participation.

Question 65

List and describe the three review categories.

Answer 65

1. Exempt research – Includes observation of public behavior and standard practices in education.
2. Expedited Review – Research that involves little or no risk over normal activity.
3. Full Review – Involves risks greater than usual or work with a vulnerable population.

Question 66

What is a Conflict of Interest?

Answer 66

A conflict of interest refers to special set of competing contingencies. On the one hand, I want to conduct high quality work that can be replicated by others and on the other hand I may receive reinforcement only if I obtain positive results.

Question 67

What are three ways to mitigate a conflict of Interest?

Answer 67

1. Could disqualify conflicted staff from any role in the research
2. Have an independent person collect and evaluate data.
3. Have an independent party spot check data collection and analysis