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Year 1 > Metabolic Disorders (Obesity) > Flashcards

Metabolic Disorders (Obesity) Flashcards

1
Q

Metabolic Syndrome

A

Central Obesity
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

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2
Q

BMI Calculation

A

Weight (kg) / height^2 (m)

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3
Q

Classifying central adiposity

A

Height-to-waist ratio
0.4-0.49 = healthy
0.5-0.59 = increased
>0.6 = high

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4
Q

Waist-to-hip ratio

A

> 0.9 males, > 0.85 females are indicators of increased central obesity

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5
Q

What glucose transporter is used in insulin-dependent cellular uptake of glucose?

A

GLUT4 (transmembrane protein)

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6
Q

What glucose transporter is used in insulin-independent cellular uptake of glucose?

A

GLUT1 (transmembrane protein)

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7
Q

What type of transport occurs at GLUT1 receptors?

A

Facilitated diffusion

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8
Q

How does insulin increase cellular uptake of glucose?

A

Binds to Insulin Receptor
Causes translocation of GLUT4 (by exocytosis) from intracellular stores to plasma membrane.

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9
Q

Exocytosis

A

Fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane

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10
Q

Where is GLUT1 found?

A

Highly abundant on all cells of the foetal and adult (particularly RBCs)

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11
Q

Where is GLUT2 found?

A

Cells of the kidney tubule, pancreas, liver and small intestine

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12
Q

Where is GLUT3 found?

A

Mainly on nerve cells and also found on the placenta

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13
Q

Where is GLUT4 found?

A

Adipose tissue, cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle

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14
Q

What are SGLTs?

A

Sodium-Glucose Linked Transport

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15
Q

Where is SGLT1 mainly found?

A

Primary transporter of glucose in the intestine

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16
Q

Where is SGLT2 mainly found?

A

Cells lining the proximal tubule where it aids in reabsorption of glucose from renal fluid

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17
Q

Long-term complications of hyperglycaemia

A

CVD
Neuropathy
Nephropathy
Retinopathy
Peripheral neuropathy (e.g. feet/hands)
Bone and joint problems
Teeth and gum infections

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18
Q

Short-term complications of hyperglycaemia

A

Diabetic ketoacidosis (Type 1)
Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemia state (Type 2)

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19
Q

What are the products of glycolysis of one glucose molecule?

A

2 pyruvate
4 ATP (2 net ATP)
2 NADH

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20
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Metabolic process that forms glucose molecules from other sources and occurs in the cytoplasm

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21
Q

What other molecules can be used for gluconeogenesis?

A

Amino acids (except lysine and leucine)
Glycerol
Fructose
Pyruvate
Lactate
Oxaloacetate

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22
Q

How does pyruvate enter Krebs cycle?

A

Pyruvate + CoA -> acetyl-CoA + NADH
Catalysed by pyruvate dehydrogenase

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23
Q

What is the total net production of ATP from the Krebs cycle?

A

8 NADH (2 from pre-Krebs)
2 FADH2

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24
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

A series of redox reactions powered by high energy electrons that pump protons across the membrane, creating a proton gradient

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25
Q

How many ATP are produced from one NADH?

A

3 ATP

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26
Q

How many ATP are produced from one FADH2?

A

2 ATP

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27
Q

What is the total ATP yield of aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule?

A

38 ATP

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28
Q

NAD

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

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29
Q

FAD

A

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide

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30
Q

What enzyme is required for anaerobic respiration?

A

Lactate Dehydrogenase

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31
Q

How many ATP are produced per glucose molecule during anaerobic respiration?

A

2 ATP (from glycolysis)
2 NADH produced by glycolysis are reused to convert pyruvate to lactate

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32
Q

What happens to lactate once produced during anaerobic respiration?

A

Transported back to the liver where it is converted back to glucose by gluconeogenesis (uses 6 ATP)

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33
Q

What enzyme is required for the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

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34
Q

What are the net products of the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

12 NADH
6 CO2
1 G3P

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35
Q

What cells contain receptors for glucagon?

A

Hepatocytes

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36
Q

What effect does the binding of glucagon to hepatocyte receptors cause?

A

Intracellular enzyme cascade leading to the breakdown of glycogen to glucose that is then released into the blood

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37
Q

What cells detect a decrease in blood glucose?

A

α and β cells of the pancreas
Stimulates secretion of glucagon by α cells
Inhibits secretion of insulin by β cells

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38
Q

What cells react to an increase in blood glucose?

A

β cells of the pancreas
Increased conc. causes uptake of glucose into β cells by facilitated diffusion

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39
Q

What do high ATP levels in β cells cause?

A

K+ channels to close, producing a change in the membrane potential

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40
Q

What does the change in membrane potential of β cells cause?

A

Opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, leading to an influx of Ca2+

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41
Q

What does a Ca2+ influx in β cells cause?

A

Triggers exocytosis of insulin-containing vesicles causing release of insulin into the capillaries

42
Q

Where does glycogen synthesis occur?

A

Liver and muscle

43
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Metabolic process of glycogen synthesis

44
Q

What type of receptor is the insulin receptor?

A

Tyrosine kinase

45
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Metabolic process in which glycogen is broken down into monomers of glucose-1-phosphate or glucose

46
Q

Which energy storage provides faster access, glycogen or triglycerides?

A

Glycogen - short-term rapid access
Triglycerides - long-term slow access

47
Q

What effect does adrenaline have on glycogen?

A

Promotes glycogenolysis and inhibits glycogenesis only in skeletal muscle

48
Q

What hormones drive lipolysis?

A

Adrenaline
ACTH
TSH
Glucagon (during fasting state)

49
Q

What effect does insulin have on lipolysis?

A

Inhibits lipolysis
- inhibits lipase that hydrolyses TG
- facilitates entry of glucose that can be used to synthesise glycerol

50
Q

Lipolysis

A

Metabolic process through which triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and free fatty acids

51
Q

Fatty acid beta oxidation

A

The catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down to generate acetyl-CoA, NADH and FADH2

52
Q

What are the two primary ketone bodies in circulation?

A

Acetoacetate and β
-hydroxybutyrate

53
Q

Where are HMG-CoA synthase and HMG-CoA lyase found?

A

In the liver

54
Q

What is the role of HMG-CoA synthase?

A

To convert acetoacetyl-CoA into HMG-CoA

55
Q

What is the role of HMG-CoA lyase?

A

To convert HMG-CoA to acetyl-CoA and acetoacetate

56
Q

What does acetoacetate spontaneously convert to?

A

Acetone through spontaneous decarboxylation

57
Q

What can acetoacetate be converted to?

A

β
-hydroxybutyrate (using NADH)

58
Q

What is the purpose of producing ketone bodies?

A

To be converted back to acetyl-CoA for oxidation in the TCA to produce energy in tissues (including the brain during starvation

59
Q

Where is the appetite centre?

A

Hypothalamus, specifically the arcuate nucleus

60
Q

Ghrelin

A

Hormone produced and released by the enteroendocrine cells in the stomach wall when the stomach is empty, stimulating appetite

61
Q

Primary neurones

A

Process external signals

62
Q

Secondary neurones

A

Responsible for co-ordinating the input received via the primary neuron

63
Q

PYY

A

Peptide tyrosine tyrosine
Hormone released by cells of the ileum and colon in response to feeding, suppressing appetite

64
Q

Leptin

A

Hormone released by adipocytes into the blood, stimulating inhibitory neurons and inhibiting excitatory neurons in the arcuate nucleus to suppress appetite

65
Q

What effect does insulin have on appetite?

A

Insulin suppresses appetite similarly to lectin

66
Q

POMC

A

Proopiomelanocortin
Pro-hormone that gives rise to several biologically active peptides expressed in the pituitary and brain

67
Q

Energy balance

A

Difference between energy intake and energy expenditure

68
Q

Part of the nervous system under involuntary control

A

Autonomic Nervous System

69
Q

Part of the nervous system under voluntary control

A

Somatic Nervous System

70
Q

What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

71
Q

What neurotransmitter is used in the somatic nervous system?

A

Acetylcholine

72
Q

What neurotransmitter is used in the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Noradrenaline

73
Q

What neurotransmitter is used in the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Acetylcholine

74
Q

What are the 4 parts of a neuron?

A

Dendrites
Cell body (soma)
Axon
Synapse

75
Q

Schwann Cells

A

Serve as the myelinating cells of the peripheral nervous system, and support cells of peripheral neurons

76
Q

Glial cells of the PNS

A

Schwann cells
Satellite cells

77
Q

Glial Cells

A

Any cells that hold nerve cells in place and help them to work the way that they should

78
Q

Glial cells of the CNS

A

Ependymal Cells
Astrocytes
Microglia
Oligodendrocytes

79
Q

Ependymal Cells

A

Line the ventricles of the brain and the spinal chord.
Produce, secrete, absorb and propel CSF

80
Q

Astrocytes

A

Physical and metabolic support for CNS and regulates microenvironment
Forms the BBB

81
Q

Microglia

A

Phagocytic - active in regions of injury and inflammation

82
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Provides myelinated segments of multiple axons (up to 60)
Do not support unmyelinated axons

83
Q

Endoneurium

A

A layer of connective tissue surrounding a single axon

84
Q

Fascicle

A

A small bundle of nerve fibres enclosed by the perineurium

85
Q

Epineurium

A

The outermost layer of dense, irregular connective tissue surrounding a peripheral nerve

86
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves do we have?

A

31 pairs - arising from the spinal cord

87
Q

Where do the spinal nerve pairs exit the spinal cord?

A

The intervertebral foramen

88
Q

What is the outermost meninges?

A

Dura Mater

89
Q

What is the innermost meninges?

A

Pia Mater

90
Q

What is the middle meninges?

A

Arachnoid Mater

91
Q

What dermatome covers the nipple?

A

T4

92
Q

What dermatome is the umbilicus?

A

T10

93
Q

What dermatome is at the level of the clavicles?

A

C4

94
Q

What dermatome is at the inguinal line?

A

L1

95
Q

What dermatome covers the little toe?

A

S1

96
Q

What dermatome covers the big toe?

A

L5

97
Q

What dermatome covers the little finger and the ring finger?

A

C8

98
Q

What dermatome covers the thumb and index finger?

A

C6

99
Q

Ventral Roots

A

Motor neurons (efferent)

100
Q

Dorsal Roots

A

Sensory neurons (afferent)

Year 1 (23 decks)

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