Meta Ethics Flashcards
What do ethical cognitivists believe?
Ethical statements are factual statements which tell us something true or false about the world
What do ethical non-cognitivists believe?
Ethical statements are not factual statements; their purpose is not to express something true or false about the world
Which two schools of metaethics are considered non-cognitivist?
Emotivism (A.J. Ayer/Vienna Circle)
Prescriptivism (R.M. Hare)
These are not named on the spec but worth knowing as critique
Why is emotivism often described as the “boo-hurrah” theory?
Because it suggests that ethical statements are emotional outbursts, e.g. ‘hurrah, charity!’/’boo, killing!’ rather than factual statements
Which theory/theories are naturalist?
Utilitarianism
Which theory/theories are non-naturalist?
Divine Command Theory
Intuitionism
What is ethical naturalism?
The view that moral statements are the same as, or can be reduced to, statements about natural properties
What is a natural property?
Any property which can be investigated through the natural sciences (e.g. empirically)
What is ethical non-naturalism?
The view that ethical statements are cognitive, but cannot be reduced to statements about natural properties
Why is DCT considered a non-naturalist theory?
Because it treats ethical statements as objectively true (cognitivist) but believes they have a transcendent source (non-naturalist)
Which of God’s qualities is most important when considering DCT?
Omnipotence: if God does not decide the meaning of right and wrong, there is something more powerful/fundamental than Him
How does the specification define DCT?
“Right is what God commands, wrong is what God forbids”
What does God’s omnibenevolence mean in terms of DCT?
He always commands out of love
Who are the two main DCT scholars?
John Calvin
Karl Barth
Finish the quote from John Calvin: “The will of God is the…”
“The will of God is the supreme will of righteousness”
Why does John Calvin believe we need revealed instructions (e.g. the Ten Commandments)?
Our natural reason is useful but flawed due to the Fall - direct commands from God can redeem our reason and set us on the right path
Complete the quote from Karl Barth: “‘How can God be understood as the Lord if that does not involve the problem of human ….”
obedience
How does Barth link the sacrifice of Christ to DCT?
It has decided the “question of good and evil” for good, meaning that Jesus’ final commands are absolute and eternal
Give a strength of DCT
For those who accept that morality is commanded by God, his commands can be easily found in scripture
It provides an answer to the question “Why be moral?”, by linking to accountability and reward and punishment in Heaven and Hell
For Christians, it makes little sense to follow any other theory since this could undermine God’s omnipotence
Give a weakness of DCT
Scripture contains many commands which are outdated and/or self-contradictory
Reducing morality to obedience potentially undermines our sense of autonomy - should we not form our own opinions?
DCT only appeals to people with preexisting belief in the Abrahamic God - it would not be a workable theory for an atheist or a Buddhist
Why is Bentham considered a naturalist?
Because he reduces goodness to the natural property of pleasure
Complete the quote from Bentham: “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of…”
“…two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.”
What is an ethical hedonist?
Someone who believes that right and wrong are the same as pleasure and pain
How does the Hedonic Calculus link to the idea of ethical naturalism?
It shows that pleasure/goodness can be measured using empirical methods, like other natural properties
Who came up with Rule Utilitarianism?
John Stuart Mill
What complexity does Mill add to the concept of ethical hedonism?
There is a difference between higher and lower pleasures
How, according to Mill, can we tell the difference between a higher and lower pleasure?
A competent judge who has experienced both would always take a small quantity of higher pleasures over a large quantity of lower pleasures
Complete the quote from John Stuart Mill: “It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than…”
“…a pig satisfied”
Give two strengths of ethical naturalism
It appeals to the intuitive human sense that pleasure is good and pain is bad; most people at least avoid pain for themselves
It gives due consideration to animal pain as morally relevant
Give two weaknesses of ethical naturalism
Ethical naturalism faces problems such as the sadistic guard problem, where seemingly immoral acts pass the Hedonic Calculus
Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures fixes this but could be argued to collapse into a form of intuitionism
How does the specification define intuitionism?
‘Moral values are self-evident’
Why does intuitionism count as a non-naturalist theory?
Because it says that ethical statements are cognitive but cannot be reduced to natural statements
Who are the two main scholars of intuitionism?
G.E. Moore and W.D. Ross
What is the main difference between Moore and Ross?
Moore is intuitionist about ENDS - he believes the ethical goods we strive towards (e.g. happiness, peace) are self-evident
Ross is intuitionist about DUTIES - he believes certain obligations (e.g. gratitude to others) are self-evident
According to Moore, why do we disagree about ethics if moral ends are self-evident?
Because the means used to achieve these are not evident e.g. HOW to create a fair society
According to Ross, why do we disagree about ethics if moral duties are self-evident?
Because these duties sometimes conflict with each other and it is not always easy to tell which ought to be followed
What is Moore’s open question argument?
If we have made a statement about pleasure we can always ask a further question about morality: “x is pleasurable but is it also good?” Therefore pleasure and goodness are not the same
What is the naturalistic fallacy?
The fallacy of deriving ‘ought’ (ethical) statements from ‘is’ (naturalistic) descriptions
What two words does Moore use to describe ethical statements?
Simple / unanalysable
What is good like, according to Moore?
Yellow - also cannot be defined, just intuited
According to Ross, fidelity, reparation, and gratitude are all examples of what?
Prima facie duties
Give two strengths of intuitionism
It raises issues with naturalism which naturalism has not been able to solve
It explains why we disagree about ethics while at the same time sharing certain common convictions
Give two weaknesses of intuitionism
There is no way to distinguish between moral truths which are actually right and those which SEEM right - in fact we often change our minds about seemingly obvious moral truths throughout our lives
Ethical naturalists argue that our moral intuitions can generally be reduced to personal interests/social values and therefore naturalism still holds the superior explanation
