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Ethics > Applied Ethics > Flashcards

Applied Ethics Flashcards

1
Q

What is the HFEA? What is its purpose?

A

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority - regulates embryo research

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2
Q

What are the three purposes for which the HFEA has legalised embryo research?

A

1) Research into the development of embryos 2) Research into the cause of serious diseases 3) Treatment of such diseases

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3
Q

For how many days does the HFEA allow embryo research to be carried out?

A

14

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4
Q

What are the two main types of cloning?

A

Therapeutic and reproductive

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5
Q

What is therapeutic cloning?

A

The cloning of embryos in order to harvest stem cells for medical purposes

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6
Q

What is reproductive cloning?

A

The cloning of full human beings

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7
Q

What is meant by a ‘Designer Baby’?

A

A baby which has been modified before birth to select for specific characteristics

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8
Q

After how many weeks is a foetus viable (able to survive on its own)?

A

24

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9
Q

What is PGD?

A

Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis: selecting only embryos with desired characteristics for implantation in the womb (a form of Designer Babies technology)

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10
Q

What is the purpose of three-parent IVF?

A

Prevention of inherited illness e.g. mitochondrial disease

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11
Q

How would Virtue Ethics respond to embryo research, cloning, and designer babies?

A

Would focus on what virtue can be developed/shown by all concerned e.g. doctors increasing their intellectual virtues through scientific exploration, but also may fall into vices of over-ambition e.g. by pursuing reproductive cloning. May consider how designer babies could be used to select for characteristics which might make someone more likely to become a sophron.

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12
Q

How would Natural Moral Law respond to embryo research, cloning, and designer babies?

A

Generally against as these all involve the use of embryo, and the death of unwanted/used embryos, which violates Preservation of Life/Reproduction. However, Proportionalists may argue that the proportional good (e.g. curing diseases) could justify this. (This may be difficult though due to the number of embryos used - not proportionate.)

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13
Q

How would Situation Ethics respond to embryo research, cloning, and designer babies?

A

Relativism rejects absolutes so would say that it is justifiable in some situations but not others. Fletcher believed that no family should be burdened with an “idiot” (Down’s Syndrome child) and could justify designer babies on these grounds. Pragmatism requires that our actions work in practice so would also depend on how effective the medical technology is.

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14
Q

How would Situation Ethics respond to embryo research, cloning, and designer babies?

A
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15
Q

What is the name for the view that abortion should be allowed on the grounds of bodily autonomy?

A

Pro-choice

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16
Q

What is the name for the view that abortion should not be allowed on the grounds of the foetus’ right to life?

A

Pro-life

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17
Q

Up until how many weeks is abortion generally legal?

A

24

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18
Q

What is the legal exception to the 24-week limit on abortion?

A

Risk to life of mother / serious disability of child

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19
Q

How would Virtue Ethics be applied to abortion?

A

Difficult apply as it was not an issue in Aristotle’s time and some of the virtues are ambiguous e.g. is it braver to have an abortion or start a family? Would involve careful use of intellectual virtue - particularly practical wisdom (phronesis)

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20
Q

How would Natural Moral Law be applied to abortion?

A

Very clear in prohibiting abortion. The Doctrine of Double Effect classes all abortion as breaking a primary precept in its exterior act. However, removal of the fallopian tube in the case of ectopic pregnancy, which results in the unintended death of the foetus, could be allowed. Proportionalists may allow more cases of abortion where the mother’s life is at risk.

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21
Q

How would Situation Ethics be applied to abortion?

A

Would argue due to relativism that abortion is appropriate in some situations but not others. Fletcher gives the example of a schizophrenic woman raped by a fellow patient in a mental hospital but denied an abortion. Fletcher would reject strict abortion laws as a form of legalism, and advocated use of abortion as a way to prevent “subhuman” children being born with Down’s Syndrome.

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22
Q

What is the difference between voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

A

Voluntary euthanasia is the ending of a person’s life directly caused by another person on request.
Assisted suicide is when another person helps an individual to end their life.

23
Q

What is the UK law on voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

A

Both illegal and carry a 14 year jail sentence

24
Q

What are the main moral issues around voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

A

Finding a rule that fits the range of cases - e.g. 94 year old on fourth heart attack vs twenty year-old paralysed motorcyclist.

Whether there is a moral distinction between killing and letting die. If not then euthanasia would be allowed.

Whether there can be a ‘Right to Die’; whether or not sanctity of life applies to the dying

25
Q

How would Virtue Ethics be applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

A

Friendliness for Aristotle is an important virtue so a friend may assist in suicide out of compassion. However, there is an issue as to how bravery is applied since Aristotle considered suicide a cowardly act.

26
Q

How would Natural Moral Law be applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

A

Rejects Euthanasia as a violation of Preservation of Life. Any act of direct killing violates the Doctrine of Double Effect, however inadvertently causing death through the use of morphine as pain relief would technically pass the Doctrine of Double Effect.

27
Q

How would Situation Ethics be applied to voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

A

Fletcher gives the example of a terminally ill man who could stay alive longer but, with the cost of treatment and insurance, would leave his family with no money at all, so chooses euthanasia. Fletcher sees this as an example of agape. However, many other considerations are important such as pragmatism, e.g. how likely is a cure to be found while the patient is alive?

28
Q

What is capital punishment? Give three examples

A

The death penalty - e.g. lethal injection, hanging, beheading

29
Q

What are the four main aims of punishment? Which one does capital punishment NOT meet?

A

Rehabilitation (NOT met)
Retribution
Deterrence
Protection of public

30
Q

What are the main moral issues surrounding capital punishment?

A

Whether it is actually an effective deterrent (data does not support this)

Whether it can be justified if the punishment fits the crime (e.g. serial killers)

What to do about individuals who undergo reform (e.g. Stanley Tookie Williams)

Whether the state has a right to take life

31
Q

How would Virtue Ethics be applied to capital punishment?

A

Aristotle does not debate it since it was such common practice in his time, but virtues can be applied e.g. Aristotle recognises righteous anger as a virtue and therefore this could justify retribution against violent criminals. Justice is also important in Aristotle and if the offence is bad enough this may put capital punishment in the golden mean. Modern virtue ethicists may question whether certain virtues such as mercy and compassion are missing from Aristotle’s list.

32
Q

How would Natural Moral Law be applied to capital punishment?

A

Despite capital punishment going against Preservation of Life at face value, NML allows it for the reason that the state is justified in executing someone who is harming the community, in the same way a violent beast could be killed (Ordered Society).

33
Q

How would Situation Ethics be applied to capital punishment?

A

Situation Ethics would say that although it is generally loving not to kill, there might be situations in which the opposite is loving. Fletcher says that justice is love distributed, but there might be situations e.g. where the offender also wishes their life to be ended, where it is more pragmatic to kill them.

34
Q

What is intensive farming?

A

The factory farming of animals - keeping animals confined so as to produce a greater yield of meat. This often involves crowded and filthy conditions, as well as painful procedures such as de-beaking and tail-cutting, without anaesthetic.

35
Q

How could Virtue Ethics be applied to intensive farming?

A

Aristotle does not object to the use of animals as food and his hierarchy of souls shows he believes humans to have greater potential than animals. However, farming in Aristotle’s time was not intensive and he may question whether the barbaric conditions of factory farms would help anyone form a good moral character, e.g. grinding up male chicks alive is unlikely to teach someone generosity or friendliness. Many intensive farming practices are likely an example of vice of excess.

36
Q

How could Natural Moral Law be applied to intensive farming?

A

Not seen as a concern because Aquinas says man has a right to use animals for his own needs. Aquinas says that it is as natural for humans to eat animals as it is for animals to eat plants, and that if a man kills another man’s ox, the crime is imply property theft. However, the effect of intensive farming on ordered societies (e.g. CO2 emissions, antibiotic resistance) could be an issue.

37
Q

How could Situation Ethics be applied to intensive farming?

A

Difficult to apply due to ambiguities around the principle of personalism - we assume Fletcher means humans because he does not write about animals, but Situationism could be used in a wider sense. Fletcher would also approach through pragmatism, e.g. cattle consume so much grain that decreasing meat production might lead to a positive increase in other crops - but some livestock still required for manure!

38
Q

How can animals be used in scientific procedures?

A

To develop drugs and medicines, and as test-subjects for new therapies; also in general research e.g. into psychological responses or animal behaviour

39
Q

What is the purpose of cloning animals?

A

There can be lots of purposes e.g. preserving endangered species, making animals disease-resistant, or increasing the meat/fur yield

40
Q

Who was the first cloned animal in the UK?

A

Dolly the Sheep

41
Q

How could Virtue Ethics be applied to use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning?

A

Learning about medical conditions from animals could be seen as a good use of intellectual virtue, which separates us from animals. Traditionally virtues such as justice, generosity, friendliness etc. are seen to refer to the relationships between humans. However, a modern virtue ethicist may argue these also apply to our relationships with animals.

42
Q

How could Natural Moral Law be applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning?

A

Would not generally take issue; the Catholic Church (through the teachings of Aquinas) supports animal testing. However anything too extreme (e.g. producing animal/human hybrids) may be seen as against the Worship of God.

43
Q

How could Situation Ethics be applied to the use of animals in scientific procedures and cloning?

A

Would recognise the practical benefits e.g. HIV/AIDs treatments from chickens/cats/monkeys. Fletcher himself was involved in cloning research and advocated the use of animals in scientific procedures. Could apply the fundamental principle that the end justifies the means, but it could be argued that the ways animals are disposed of after testing (e.g. rats decapitated with scissors) are not loving.

44
Q

What are blood sports? Give three examples

A

Sports that involve animal bloodshed, done for entertainment e.g. hunting, fishing, bull-fighting, goose-pulling

45
Q

What are the main moral issues around blood sports?

A

Cultural relativism - many blood sports are central to cultures (e.g. bullfighting in Spain)

Unnecessary harm and death to animals

Danger to those taking part

Psychological impact on spectators

46
Q

How could Virtue Ethics be applied to blood sports?

A

Aristotle offers no arguments against, and many Ancient Greeks liked to hunt animals, however it could be argued that virtues should be adapted to reflect changes in social attitudes e.g. fox hunting bans. Limiting the killing of animals to cases where it is strictly necessary could be seen as temperance, and taking part in potentially dangerous sports could be seen as recklessness (though also possibly a chance to develop bravery).

47
Q

How could Natural Law respond to blood sports?

A

Offers no major objections but Aquinas does raise the concern that a person who is cruel to animals “might go on to do the same to men”, highlighting the psychological impact

48
Q

How could Situation Ethics respond to blood sports?

A

Would apply relativism to look at the full range of cases. May be pragmatic in some cases e.g. to keep the fox population down and avoid the death of chickens due to foxes. But the culture of blood sports does not tend to make people more loving and the resultant blood lust could be seen as unchristian. Equally, Fletcher may argue it is better to take this out on animals than human neighbours.

49
Q

What is the technical term for the use of animals as a source for transplants?

A

Xenotransplantation

50
Q

What is the most common form of xenotransplantation?

A

Transplantation of genetically engineered pigs’ hearts as heart transplants for humans

51
Q

What are the main moral issues around use of animals as a source of organ transplants?

A

Death of animals

Lack of alternatives

Risk of disease transmission

52
Q

How could Virtue Ethics be applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplants?

A

Many arguments in favour e.g. Aristotle’s approval of scientific research, focus on intellect and lower status of animals, though practical wisdom would also take account of the possible risks.

53
Q

How could Natural Moral Law be applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplants?

A

Would approve the use of animals in human treatments on grounds of preservation of life, though the Catholic Church rejects any use of animals that permanently alters the human genome as a failure to worship God

54
Q

How could Situation Ethics be applied to the use of animals as a source of organ transplants?

A

Pragmatism may recognise practical concerns such as disease risk. Fletcher always starts with the question “Who is to be helped?” (Personalism) Even with the risk considered, it may be justifiable to take a leap of faith (positivism)

Ethics (6 decks)

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