Conscience

Question 1

What is the term used in the New Testament for conscience?

Answer 1

The term used in the New Testament for conscience is syneidesis.

Question 2

How does Aquinas define conscience?

Answer 2

Aquinas defines conscience as the natural ability of a rational human being to understand the difference between right and wrong, which he called Conscientia.

Question 3

According to Aquinas, what problems might arise when relying solely on one’s moral sense?

Answer 3

Problems such as judgment clouded by passions, ignorance, or long-established habits might arise when relying solely on one’s moral sense.

Question 4

What are the two possible ways in which the process of conscience could go wrong according to Aquinas?

Answer 4

The two possible ways are Invincible Ignorance, where a person is not aware of the relevant moral principle, and Vincible Ignorance, where a person knows the general moral principle but is unaware that it applies in a specific situation.

Question 5

What does Aquinas mean when he says it is always right to follow one’s conscience?

Answer 5

Aquinas means that it is always right to apply one’s moral principles to each individual situation to the best of one’s ability.

Question 6

What is Copleston’s viewpoint on the role of reason and emotions in morality?

Answer 6

Copleston points out that for most people, emotions rather than reason play a significant role in morality.

Question 7

According to Conscience, why is telling lies and breaking promises considered irrational?

Answer 7

Telling lies and breaking promises are considered irrational because they conflict with the synderesis rule to seek to do good and avoid evil and violate the primary precept of living in an ordered society.

Question 8

What exceptional circumstance does Aquinas consider regarding lying?

Answer 8

Aquinas considers the “mad axe-murderer” situation as an exceptional circumstance where telling an evasive truth might be justified.

Question 9

How does Aquinas view adultery from the perspective of reason (conscience)?

Answer 9

Aquinas views adultery as wrong dictated by reason (conscience).

Question 10

Does Aquinas believe that conscience is infallible?

Answer 10

No, Aquinas does not believe that conscience is infallible; he thinks it can make mistakes.

Question 11

What example does Aquinas give regarding a mistaken conscience and adultery?

Answer 11

Aquinas gives an example of a man who unknowingly marries a widow and engages in sexual relations with her, only to later discover that her husband was still alive.

Question 12

In Aquinas’s view, is there fault in following a mistaken conscience in certain situations?

Answer 12

Aquinas says that there is no fault in following a mistaken conscience in situations where there is genuine lack of knowledge of the true facts of the case.

Question 13

How does Aquinas propose individuals should handle moral dilemmas such as adultery?

Answer 13

Aquinas suggests that individuals should act according to reason (conscience) and their best understanding of moral principles in handling moral dilemmas such as adultery.

Question 14

Why does Aquinas believe that conscience might lead individuals astray?

Answer 14

Aquinas believes that conscience might lead individuals astray due to ignorance or mistaken judgments.

Question 15

What role does the Divine Law play in Aquinas’s understanding of conscience?

Answer 15

Aquinas considers ignorance of the Divine Law as a factor that might lead to erroneous judgments of conscience.

Question 16

How does Aquinas differentiate between a morally excusable mistake and an evil act regarding conscience?

Answer 16

Aquinas distinguishes between a mistake arising from ignorance that excuses the act and a willful act against known Divine Law, which he considers evil.

Question 17

What consequences does Aquinas associate with habitual lying and promise-breaking in society?

Answer 17

Aquinas associates the breakdown of trust and security in society with habitual lying and promise-breaking.

Question 18

In what circumstances does Aquinas believe exceptions to moral principles may be justified?

Answer 18

Aquinas believes exceptions to moral principles may be justified in exceptional circumstances where adhering strictly to the principle might lead to greater harm.

Question 19

According to Joseph Butler, what is conscience, and how does it function?

Answer 19

Conscience, according to Joseph Butler, is the ultimate moral decision-maker innate within humans. It directs individuals towards acting for the happiness or interests of others rather than focusing solely on themselves.

Question 20

How does Butler describe the principle by which individuals distinguish between approval and disapproval of their own actions?

Answer 20

Butler describes this principle as conscience, which he defines as the innate ability within individuals to discern between approval and disapproval of their actions.

Question 21

What are the two basic principles that influence humans, according to Butler?

Answer 21

According to Butler, humans are influenced by two basic principles: self-love and love of others.

Question 22

What role does conscience play in ethical judgments, as per Butler?

Answer 22

Butler argues that conscience determines and judges the rightness and wrongness of actions, serving as the ultimate authority in ethical judgments.

Question 23

How does Butler envision the governance of the world if conscience had absolute power?

Answer 23

Butler suggests that if conscience had the strength and manifest authority commensurate with its right, it would govern the world absolutely.

Question 24

What term does Butler use to describe conscience’s guidance in moral behavior?

Answer 24

Butler describes conscience as “our natural guide,” placed within us by God, and calls it “the law of our nature.”

Question 25

According to Butler, what is the origin of conscience, and why must it be obeyed?

Answer 25

Butler argues that conscience is innate and placed within us by God, hence it must be obeyed without reservation.

Question 26

How does Freud define conscience?

Answer 26

For Freud conscience is the superego: the internalisation of reward and punishment from childhood that leads to a feeling of guilt

Question 27

Why, for Freud, does conscience have value?

Answer 27

Because the purpose of the superego is to counteract the id, which will act upon the pleasure principle regardless of the consequences. The superego allows us to learn the rules of society and therefore foster positive social relationships.

Question 28

Why, for Freud, does the conscience not have value?

Answer 28

Because it does not have a divine source but is instead dependent on upbringing - there is no external viewpoint from which we can judge what the right and wrong rules are

Question 29

How does Fromm define the conscience?

Answer 29

For Fromm the conscience is the voice that makes moral decisions, and it can take two forms, one positive and one negative.

Question 30

What are the two types of conscience Fromm identifies?

Answer 30

Authoritarian and Humanistic

Question 31

What is the authoritarian conscience?

Answer 31

A state in which an individual is alienated from themselves and comes to see themselves as carrying out the wishes of another moral agent, who has authority over them e.g. Nazis who believe themselves to just be following orders

Question 32

What is the humanistic conscience?

Answer 32

The true voice of an individual’s human nature; their ability to freely act upon their own moral judgments without being guided by an authoritarian figure.

Question 33

How does Fromm explain guilt?

Answer 33

A person acting against authority may feel guilt because of the force of authority. This is the voice of the authoritarian conscience and should be ignored.
In contrast a person acting on the instructions of authority may feel guilt because they know the actions to be wrong. This is the humanistic conscience speaking and ought to be listened to.

Question 34

How would religious theories about the conscience address lies and promise-breaking?

Answer 34

Most religious theories are against lying and promise-breaking, and recognise that these cause feelings of guilt, which come from God. / Aquinas may view promise-breaking as an apparent good, and therefore as a reason for the conscience having erred. / Butler would recognise lying and promise-breaking as potentially selfish behaviour and therefore a failure to follow the highest principle of human reason.

Question 35

How would secular theories about the conscience address lies and promise-breaking?

Answer 35

For Freud, an individual with an underdeveloped superego would be likely to lie and break promises all the time since they have not internalised any rules from childhood. In contrast, someone with an overdeveloped superego may feel guilty about even white lies, which could be considered excessive. A healthy individual would be aware of these rules but also when, for example, it might be appropriate to break a promise. / For Fromm, the humanitarian conscience would generally discourage lying and promise-breaking. However, there are times when these might be appropriate/necessary. E.g. a worker should not feel guilty about promise-breaking if this involves breaking their contract with an employer by going on strike, since the employer has already broken their end of the contract.

Question 36

How would religious theories about the conscience address adultery?

Answer 36

Religious theories are against adultery and suggest that individuals are aware that this is wrong, due to the moral knowledge God has given us, either through natural reason (Aquinas) or intuition (Butler). However, Aquinas does suggest an individual could accidentally commit adultery if they believe someone to be their wife who is not. This would be invincible erring and the person would not be blameworthy since they could not have known otherwise.

Question 37

How would secular theories about the conscience address adultery?

Answer 37

Secular theories would explain views about marriage and adultery as a result of psychological/sociological conditioning. Cheating on a partner could be the sign of an underdeveloped conscience, but equally Fromm might argue that someone forced into marriage is justified in pursuing a relationship with someone they have actually fallen in love with.

Question 38

Why might some people prefer to take a religious view of the conscience?

Answer 38

Because they are from a religious background themselves and want to see their moral intuitions as having a God-given source / Because Butler’s account is more optimistic about human nature, suggesting that our highest principle is not self-love but instead conscience / Because secular theories do not give a way of evaluating different beliefs about right and wrong against each other

Question 39

Why might some people prefer to take a secular view of the conscience?

Answer 39

Because they are not religious and cannot accept conscience as having a divine source / Because Freud makes better sense of why people have such different moral intuitions / Because Fromm identifies that conscience can be both good and bad