Kant and Bentham

Question 1

What type(s) of normative theory is Utilitarianism?

Answer 1

Teleological
Consequentialist
Relativist

Question 2

Who is the main scholar associated with Act Utilitarianism?

Answer 2

Jeremy Bentham

Question 3

In which text would we find Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism?

Answer 3

On the Principles of Morals and Legislation

Question 4

Why is Bentham described as an ‘Act’ Utilitarianism?

Answer 4

Because his Hedonic Calculus tends to be applied to individual acts rather than general rules/laws

Question 5

Complete the quote from Bentham:
“The question is not, can they reason?; nor, can they talk?, but…”

(What does the quote mean? Why is it significant?)

Answer 5

“…can they suffer?”

Here Bentham is saying that we should factor into our decisions any being capable of experiencing pain - not just rational beings - therefore humans and animals are treated equally

Question 6

What is an ethical hedonist?

Answer 6

Someone (e.g. Bentham) who believes that what is pleasurable is what is right

Question 7

How does Bentham describe pleasure and pain?

Answer 7

Our “two sovereign masters”

Question 8

What principle does Bentham believe we should follow in every situation?

Answer 8

The Principle of Utility

Question 9

What is the Principle of Utility?

Answer 9

The greatest good for the greatest number

Question 10

What is the hedonic calculus?

Answer 10

The system a moral agent can use to apply the Principle of Utility to a specific act

Question 11

What are the seven parts of the hedonic calculus?

Answer 11

Purity
Remoteness
Extent
Duration
Intensity
Certainty
To be followed

Question 12

What does ‘Purity’ mean on the Hedonic Calculus?

Answer 12

How free from pain the act is

Question 13

What does ‘Extent’ mean on the Hedonic Calculus?

Answer 13

How many people the act affects

Question 14

What does ‘To be followed’ mean on the Hedonic Calculus?

Answer 14

How likely it is to lead to further pleasures of a similar kind

Question 15

Explain two strengths of Utilitarianism

Answer 15

It gives equal priority to humans and animals / The Hedonic Calculus is clear and easy to apply to most situations

Question 16

Explain two weaknesses of Utilitarianism

Answer 16

It treats all pleasures as equal which they are not, e.g. Bentham says pushpin and poetry are equal but is this the case? / In many situations we do not know enough to apply the Hedonic Calculus and it is not clear how we should act with such little information

Question 17

What type(s) of normative theory is Kantian Ethics?

Answer 17

Deontological
Absolutist

Question 18

In which work would we find Kantian Ethics?

Answer 18

Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morality

Question 19

What did Kant set out to find at the start of his investigation into morals?

Answer 19

A supreme principle of morality that can be used to ground all moral rules

Question 20

In Kantian Ethics, what is the good will?

Answer 20

A will that wills what is right because it is right, and for no other reason

Question 21

What are the two types of imperative demonstrated by Kant?

Answer 21

Hypothetical and Categorical

Question 22

Which type of imperative does Kant reject as being moral and why?

Answer 22

Hypothetical - these are based on contingent facts (e.g. desire, the situation) which might change so cannot ground universal moral rules

Question 23

What form does a Hypothetical Imperative take?

Answer 23

If you want y, you ought to do x

Question 24

What form does a Categorical Imperative take?

Answer 24

Do x

Question 25

What is the Categorical Imperative?

Answer 25

The universal moral principle which binds all rational beings, and has three formulations

Question 26

What is the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative?

Answer 26

Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law

Question 27

What is a maxim?

Answer 27

A general rule, kept as broad as possible so it applies to a range of cases

Question 28

What is the second formulation of the Categorical Imperative?

Answer 28

Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.

Question 29

What is the third formulation of the Categorical Imperative?

Answer 29

“Act as though a legislating member of the universal Kingdom of Ends.”

Question 30

What is the Kingdom of Ends?

Answer 30

A union of rational beings who all follow the Categorical Imperative

Question 31

Explain two strengths of Kantian Ethics

Answer 31

Kant’s approach is clear-cut and cannot be exploited since it doesn’t make exceptions / Kant underlies the importance of human dignity and universal law, and in doing so paves the way for a concept of human rights

Question 32

Explain two weaknesses of Kantian Ethics

Answer 32

Kant treats “person” only as a rational beings, and therefore rules out animals as having moral worth / Many see Kant’s approach as too dogmatic and idealistic, using examples such as the axe murderer to illustrate how it breaks down in real situations

Question 33

Explain two similarities between Kant and Bentham

Answer 33

Kant and Bentham are both secular in their approaches, suggesting that we should be relying on our own reason and autonomy rather than scripture.

Both Kant and Bentham believe that all of morality can be captured in a single principle, for Kant the Categorical Imperative and for Bentham the Principle of Utility.

Question 34

Explain two differences between Kant and Bentham

Answer 34

Bentham believes that anything which can experience pain deserves moral consideration, whereas Kant says we should only be concerned about rational beings

Kant is a rationalist, meaning that he believes we get our moral knowledge a priori by reflecting on the Categorical Imperative; Bentham is an empiricist, meaning that he believes we learn about morality through our sense experiences of pleasure and pain

Question 35

Give three examples of how religious decision-making can be seen as deontological, and therefore more like Kant

Answer 35

Many of the rules given in the Bible are clearly meant as completely binding, e.g. the Ten Commandments which are not to be broken under any circumstances.

Jesus’ Golden Rule - love your neighbour as yourself - has been recognised by many to be very similar to Kant’s First Formulation of the Categorical Imperative.

Most traditional religious decision-making systems are more deontological than teleological, e.g. Natural Moral Law.

Question 36

Give three examples of how religious decision-making can be seen as consequentialist, and therefore more like Bentham

Answer 36

Many of Jesus’ instructions are focused on bringing about the greatest good for the greatest number, e.g. the Parable of the Sheep and Goats emphasises the importance of visiting those in prison, helping the homeless, etc.

Jesus’ death can be seen as the ultimate example of the Principle of Utility, one being choosing to die to save the whole human race.

Situation Ethics suggests that Christian Ethics should form a “coalition” with Utilitarianism, through an “agaepic calculus” which focuses on maximising “neighbour-love”.