Mental Wellbeing Flashcards
1
Q
what is the WHO definition of mental health?
A
a state of wellbeing in which an individual realises his or her own ability, can cope with the normal stressors of life, can work productively and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.
- Sense of wellbeing, confidence in abilities, good self-esteem
- Can enjoy others and their lives and environment
2
Q
what are characteristics of mental health?
A
Individual realises their own abilities, can cope with normal stressors of life, can work productively and is able to contribute to community -Can use abilities to reach potential Cope -Work productively Contribute -Form positive relationships -Think logically and clearly -Manage feelings and emotions -Experience pleasure and enjoyment -Few sleep difficulties -Physically and socially active
3
Q
what are characteristics of a mental health problem?
A
Affects the way people think, feel and behave but to a lessor extent and for less time than a disorder
- Mild to moderate stress
- Difficulty coping
- Changes to sleep patterns and appetite
- Loss of energy
- Difficulty concentrating
- Temporary impairment
- Forgetful
- Feel things are ‘different’
- Socially withdraw
- Less control of emotions
4
Q
what are characteristics of a mental disorder?
A
Thoughts, feelings and behaviours that are associated with distress and impair ability to function. Stressors may have become too much.
- Psychological disfunction
- Ongoing impairment
- Excessive anxiety
- Significant change in sleep and appetite
- Social withdrawal and avoidance
5
Q
what does the biopsychosocial framework show?
A
Internal and external factors are organised
Shows biological, psychological and social factors
How these factors combine and interact to create a state of wellbeing
holistic view of mental health
Focus is not just on mental condition but social setting and circumstances
6
Q
what are internal factors? what are they according to the biopsychosocial framework?
A
Internal factors: originate within a person
- Biological or psychological
- biological: physical influences that are not under conscious control
- Psychological factors: influences are associated with mental processes
7
Q
what are external factors? what are they according to the biopsychosocial framework?
A
External factors: originate outside a person.
-Social
8
Q
what are psychological factors of the biopsychosocial framework?
A
Thoughts Ways of thinking Beliefs and attitudes Personality Learning and memory Perceptions Emotions Coping skills Psychological response to stress
9
Q
what are biological factors of the biopsychosocial model?
A
Genes Gender NT and neurons Response to medication Substance use Brain function Hormones Immune system Physiological response to stress
10
Q
what are social factors of the biopsychosocial model?
A
Relationships Social support Lifestyle Attachment External stressors Health care Stigma Income Education Attachment External stressors Violebce Lack of human rights Environment Culture
11
Q
what are the characteristics of a mentally healthy person?
A
high level functioning, high levels of social and emotional wellbeing, resilience to life stressors
12
Q
what is high level functioning? characteristics of a mentally healthy person
A
How a person can adapt in: Relationships school/work Leisure Daily living skills Cognitive skills Emotions
Tend to have high coping flexibility Function independently Engage and cooperate Maintain relationships Emotionally stable
13
Q
what is high levels o social and emotional wellbeing? characteristics of a mentally healthy person
A
Social wellbeing: Can have satisfying relationships with others Develop and maintain relationships Socially interact in appropriate ways Respect others Resolve conflict Feel confident alone or with others
Emotional wellbeing: Can control emotions and express them appropriately and confidently Develop awareness of emotions Regulate emotions Empathise Accept mistakes and learn Manage stress reactions using coping Take responsibility for actions
14
Q
what is resilience to life stressors? characteristics of mentally healthy people
A
Can adapt and cope with stressors to restore functioning
Have communication skills
Have emotional understanding
Have social competence
Have problem-solving skills
Have a sense of confidence and belief in themselves
15
Q
why are ethics difficult with mental illnesses?
A
Participants are vulnerable
Impaired psychological functioning which is difficult for giving consent
16
Q
why are informed consent forms difficult with mental illnesses?
A
A person must have competence or an understanding to give consent.
Seek a time when the mental disorder is not interfering with their capacity to give consent.
Consent can be given by guardian or next of kin.
Participant either way must be informed.
17
Q
what is a placebo?
A
a substance that loos real but is neutral. When taking a placebo, a placebo effect may occur.
18
Q
what is the placebo effect?
A
changes in behaviour due to a belief that placebo is causing changes. To control placebo effects a single-bling procedure is used.
19
Q
what is a single-blind procedure?
A
participant is unaware of what group they are in.
20
Q
what is a double-blind procedure?
A
both experimenter and participants are unaware of groups. No experimenter effects.
21
Q
why are placebos difficult with mental illness?
A
To take placebo, normal medication must be stopped which leaves people vulnerable to episodes and harm.
Placebo must also be debriefed at the end.
22
Q
what are factors that contribute to the development and progression of mental health disorders?
A
4P factors model
predisposing risk factor, precipitating risk factors, perpetuating risk factors, protective risk factors
23
Q
what are predisposing risk factors? eg?
A
Predisposing risk factor: increase susceptibility. Occur during conception or early in life.
Genetics
Poor self-efficacy
Disorganised attachment
24
Q
what are precipitating risk factors? eg?
A
Precipitating risk factors: increases susceptibility to a disorder. Commonly known as triggers. Occur shortly before the development.
Poor sleep and substance use
Stress
Loss of significant relationship
25
what are perpetuating risk factors? examples?
Perpetuating risk factors: maintains the occurrence of a specific mental disorder and inhibits recovery.
Poor response to medication due to genes
Rumination and impaired reasoning and memory
Stigma as a barrier to treatment
26
what are protective risk factors? egs?
Protective risk factor: reduces or prevents the occurrence or reoccurrence of a mental disorder.
Adequate diet and sleep
Cognitive behaviour strategies
Support from friends and family
27
according to the biopsychosocial approach's types of risk factors, what are the types of risk factors?
biological
- genetic vulnerability
- poor response to medication
- poor sleep
- substance use
psychological risk factors
- rumination
- impaired reasoning and memory
- stress
- poor self efficacy
social risk factors
- disorganised attachment
- loss of relationships
- stigma as a barrier
cumulative risk
28
what is genetic vulnerability? what are examples?
Genetic Vulnerability to Specific Disorders
Inheriting genes may increase risk.
Genetic vulnerability: having a risk for developing a mental disorder due to one or more factors associated with genetic inheritance.
Mental disorders are most prevalent in those who have a relative with one.
One parent with schizophrenia: 17% chance of getting it.
Both parents: 48%
Do not directly cause the disorder.
29
what is poor response to medication due to genetic factors? and an example.
medication used to treat disorders.
Some have side effects.
Poor response to medication: little to no reduction in symptoms.
45% people with depression, have poor response to anti-depressants.
genes affect absorption, distribution, metabolism or elimination.
age, sex, body eight, race, diet and other disorders or drugs also affect.
30
what is poor sleep? example
Can be risk factor that causes or develops it.
Could be the result of.
Insomnia common for people with depression.
31
what is substance use?
Consumption of drugs.
Can trigger onset of a disorder.
Mental disorder can cause abuse of substances.
32
what is rumination?
Repeatedly thinking about undesirable thoughts and feelings, without acting to change them.
Can prolong a mental disorder.
Can make depression more severe and impede recovery.
Struggle with problem solving.
33
what is impaired memory and reasoning? include probabilistic reasoning?
Illnesses can cause people to not think rationally.
Affect functioning and can prolong the illness.
Reasoning: goal-directed thinking on which conclusions are drawn from known or assumed knowledge.
Probabilistic reasoning is when a person makes a judgement on how likely something is to occur or be true.
With a disorder, they may jump to conclusions.
May also have delusions: fixed, false beliefs that are held with certainty despite lacking evidence.
Impaired reasoning can impair verbal fluency, language processing and interpretation of social situations.
Memory impairment is usually forgetfulness - bad if during an episode someone cannot provide information of themselves.
34
what is stress?
Level of stress and ability to cope contribute to development.
Major life events can help develop.
If a person is vulnerable, they might not need much stress to trigger.
35
what is poor self efficacy?
Self Efficacy: belief in their capacity to succeed in a situation or accomplish a task.
Low self-efficacy is a good predictor for low mental health.
Self efficacy is situation specific- high in some areas, low in others.
Low in many areas- vulnerable to stress and rumination which can help with development.
36
what is disorganised attachment and what is attachment? how can this help develop issues?
Attachment: emotional bond between an infant and the primary care giver. Most form a secure attachment which allow them to form positive relationships. Unhealthy attachment can lead to mental disorders.
Disorganised Attachment: inconsistent behaviour patterns in the presence of the caregiver. Child may act to the caregiver in an ambivalent or odd manner.
Behaviour characteristics:
Contradictory behaviour patterns
Undirected, misdirected, incomplete and interrupted movements.
Asymmetrical movements, mistimed movements, anomalous postures
Freezing, stilling and slowed movements and expressions
Apprehension regarding parent
Disorganisation or disorientation.
Difficult to have close relationships or open up.
Poor trust and stress management.
37
compare heathy secure attachment and disorganised attachment?
```
Healthy Secure Attachment
More skilled in reading emotions
More emotional control
More emotionally resilient
Able to adjust and recover from stressful and upsetting events
Parent is a source of comfort and safety.
Good self-esteem.
Seek social support
Trust
Long relationships.
Comfortable sharing feelings.
```
Disorganised Attachment
More likely to have elevated levels of aggression at 2.
Higher rate of disruption behaviour at 5.
Impulsive and have difficulty regulating emotions.
Less trust.
Struggle parenting.
Hard to have relationships.
Hard to manage stress and emotions.
World is seen as unsafe.
Harder to share feelings.
38
what is loss of a significant relationship?
Sadness and separation anxiety are common parts of grief.
People who are vulnerable to developing mental disorders are at greater risk.
Depression and substance use may develop.
39
what is role of stigma as a barrier to accessing treatment?
2/3 of people do not seek treatment.
Homeless or unemployment.
Stigma: mark of shame that sets people apart with a certain characteristic.
Mental disorders are stigmatised.
Social stigma: refers to aspects of an individuals’s identity that is devalued in a social context.
Self stigma: stigmatising views the individual holds about themselves.
40
what is cumulative risk?
Refers to the built up risk to mental health from combined effects of biological, psychological and social risk factors.
More risk factors, more vulnerable.
Cumulative effect also applies to protective factors.
More proactive factors, less vulnerable.
41
what is stress?
a state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope.
42
what is anxiety?
a state of physiological arousal associated with feelings of apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen.
Severe anxiety can be an anxiety disorder.
Can learn new responses
Can plan responses
Can execute complex activities.
43
what is an anxiety disorder?
involves feelings of extreme anxiety, accompanied by physical and psychological symptoms, which prevents a sufferer from normal functioning.
Recurring, unrealistic fear
Avoidance
Pervasive feelings of stress, insecurity etc.
Cause disfunction.
A phobia is an example.
44
what is a phobia?
excessive or unreasonable fear of an object or situation. Fear is usually out of proportion to actual danger. Causes avoidance and significant anxiety and distress that interferes with functioning.
45
stress, anxiety and phobias on the continuum?
Stress and anxiety are not mental disorders, phobia is.
Stress and anxiety can contribute to a disorder.
Stress is experienced everyday, coping strategies determine how bad it is.
Anxiety is often associated with stress.
Stress is not dealt with, anxiety increases, mental health can deteriorate.
If anxiety centres on an object or situation and impairs function, a person moves to a mental disorder.
46
what is appropriate anxiety?
What we all feel
| eg. Nervous to impress
47
what is threatening anxiety?
Anxiety we feel when someone stops quickly in front and we have to react quickly to avoid a crash.
48
what is extreme anxiety?
Not enough to warrant a diagnosis.
Sub-acute.
Can be fixed
49
what are anxiety disorders?
Enough symptoms to make a diagnosis.
| Treated by a health professional.
50
what are similarities between anxiety, stress and phobias?
Have a number of psychological and physiological traits in common.
Can be represented on the continuum.
If we become stressed and do not manage it, we may become increasingly anxious and this could make us vulnerable to a disorder.
Stress and anxiety contribute to developing a mental disorder.
51
what are differences between stress, anxiety and phobias?
Stress and anxiety are symptoms but are not mental disorders
Phobia is a disorder.
Stress and anxiety are normal human responses and usually adaptive and beneficial
A phobia is dysfunctional and not adaptive.
52
heathy, reacting, injured and disorder
Healthy
Normal functioning
Reacting
Common and reversible stress
Injured
Significant functional impairment
Disorder
Significant mental disorder. Severe and functional impairment.
53
what are specific phobias and what are different types of phobias?
Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder.
| Different types: social anxiety disorder (social phobia), agoraphobia and and specific phobia.
54
define specific phobia
an intense, irrational fear and avoidance of a particular object, activity or situation.
disorder involving marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation, often leading to avoidance behaviour.
55
what is the prevalence of specific phobias?
```
Usually arise in childhood and early adolescence.
10% have one.
Animal: age 7
Blood: age 9
Dental: age 12
Claustrophobia: age 20
```
56
what are the categories of specific phobia?
Animal: spiders etc.
Situational: aeroplanes etc.
Natural environment: heights, storms, darkness etc.
Blood-injection-injury: blood, injections, cuts etc.
Other phobias: choking, vomiting, loud noises etc.
57
what are symptoms of specific phobias?
```
Acute stress response involving physiological changes in FFF.
Panic attack: period of sudden or intense terror with feelings of impending doom.
Shortness of breath.
Smothering
Sweating
Trembling
Tightness in the chest
Dizzy
Unsteady
Lightheaded
Faint
Nausea
Feelings of going crazy or even dying
Recognition that fear is excessive.
Feel embarrassed
Avoidance
Or endure with inters distress
Possibility of encountering causes anticipatory anxiety which is the gradual rise in anxiety when someone thinks or about or expects to be exposed.
```
58
what are the factors that lead to the development of phobias- biological
GABA dysfunction, role pf the stress response or LTP
59
explain GABA dysfunction
Gamma-amino butyric acid
Primary inhibitory NT
Low levels mean postsynaptic neurones may get out of control due to Glutamate
FFF is more easily stimulated
Genetic inheritance, CNS damage, prolonged stress, deficiencies in vitamin B6 and citric acid, high caffeine can cause.
60
explain the role of the stress response in phobia development
Stress response is triggered when their is no real threat, the phobic object is near or there is anticipatory exposure.
61
explain the role of LTP in developing a phobia
Phobias can be obtained through classical conditioning.
LTP helps create and maintain specific phobias.
Strengthens neural pathways.
Strengthened relationship between phobic object and fear.
The more the connection is activated by seeing the object, the more the connection is strengthened.
Occurs in amygdala.
62
what are the psychological factors of developing a phobia
behavioural- CC, OC
| cognitive model- attentional bias, memory bias, interpretational or judgement bias, catastrophic thinking
63
explain the behavioural model in developing a phobia
```
Behavioural Model
Classical conditioning:
Developed through CC.
Fear is long lasting and difficult to remove.
Fear is generalised.
```
Operant conditioning:
Fear is maintained by OC
Avoids fear.
Avoidance removes unpleasant feelings, so avoidance is negatively reinforced.
64
explain the cognitive model in developing a phobia
Cognitive model
Focuses on how the person processes the information about the phobic stimulus and related events.
People with phobias usually have one or more cognitive biases.
Cognitive biases make the specific object more phobic.
Attentional bias:
Selectively attend to threat related stimuli than neutral stimuli.
Spider phobics are the first to see a spider.
Memory bias:
Selective memories
Recall memories that involve the phobic object being threatening but forget other good times.
Interpretational or judgement bias:
Tendency to interpret ambiguous objects as threatening.
Fluff is a spider.
Catastrophic thinking:
Object is seen as more dangerous than it is.
Underestimate their abilities to cope- dog turns on them, they can do nothing.
65
what are the social/environmental factors that develop phobias
specific environmental triggers
| stigma surrounding seeking treatment
66
explain specific environmental triggers in developing a phobia
A direct, negative and traumatic experience with a particular phobia stimulus at some point in the past.
67
explain stigma surrounding seeking treatment in developing a phobia
Unwilling to seek help.
Hard to empathise with.
Telling people results in not being taken seriously etc.
68
what are biological interventions for phobias?
drugs, relaxation and breathing retraining and exercise
69
explain the use of benzodiazepines. how do they work? what ways can they function?
Sedatives or minor tranquilisers.
Work on CNS.
Act on GABA receptors to increase GABA’s inhibitory effects.
GABA agonists- stimulate NT activity.
Antagonists inhibit.
Drug attached to receptor and changes its shape, making it more receptive.
Stimulating GABA decreases anxiety.
Only work if there is GABA at the receptor.
Amplifies effect of GABA so it must be present.
Can be short-acting, immediate acting or long-acting. Can remain in blood stream for a short period of time before being cleared from the body.
Short-acting: used when stimuli is unavoidable and help getting through the encounter. There are few side effects in the short term.
Prolonged use: reduced alertness, concentration, reaction time, lower inhibitions and can be addictive.
Can not cure.
Does not teach non-drug dependent coping skills.
Not widely supported as a long-term solution.
70
explain relaxation techniques and breathing retaining in treating a phobia
define hyperventilation
hyperventilation: shallow breathing, upset balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide., causes low CO2 levels
Causes dizziness, light-headedness, blurred vision and pins and needles, can heighten fear.
Over-breathing can cause breathlessness.
Breathing retraining teaches correct breathing: slow, regular, in nose and out mouth
Can help people feel more in control.
RR affects HR, BP and others. So slow breathing promotes relaxation.
Slows body, lowers arousal, reduces anxiety in turn.
Can inhibit FF and help return normal state.
Does not cure.
71
explain exercise in treating phobias
Can provide relief from fear.
Promotes relaxation, distraction, time up from phobic stimuli, use up stress hormones increasing tolerance to some anxiety symptoms, releases endorphins, creating a sense of wellbeing and indirectly provides relief.
72
what are physiological interventions to phobias?
CBT, systematic desensitisation
73
what is CBT in fixing phobias? what does it aim to do? what is avoidance and safety behaviour?
Change negative thoughts and behaviours that perpetuate the phobia and to improve coping skills into more positive ones.
Effective in short term and long term.
Aims to:
Understand that feared stimuli is not dangerous.
Show avoidance behaviours are unnecessary.
Identify fear and negative thoughts.
Identifies cognitive biases and other unhelpful thinking patterns.
Look for evidence to support and debunk fear.
Behavioural aspect aims to target avoidance and safety behaviours.
avoidance: actions that help prevent any contact, exposure or engagement with the feared object or situation.
Safety behaviour: helpful behaviours that are taught, such as relaxation, breathing retraining, exercise and systematic desensitisation.
74
what is systematic desensitisation? how does it work? treating phobias
Gradual exposure to phobic stimulus in a controlled and safe way.
Aims to cope with objects instead of avoid.
Aims to replace anxiety responses with relaxation response.
Classical conditioning: involves unlearning the connection between anxiety and an object and re-associating feelings of relaxation with that situation.
Teaching relaxation to decrease physiological arousal (breathing retraining, progressive muscle relaxation, visual imagery).
Building a fear hierarchy ranging from least to most anxiety-producing.
Graduated pairing of items in the hierarchy with relaxation by working upwards through items in the hierarchy. This can be done in vivo or using visual imagery (imagination).
At every step, the individual is encouraged to relax and no advancement is made until relaxation is achieved.
75
what are social interventions for phobias?
psychoeducation for families and supporters, challenging unrealistic or anxious thoughts, discouraging avoidance behaviours
76
explain psychoeducation for families and supporters in treating phobias
Explanation to diagnosed about their mental disorder to help with understanding of it and treatment.
Understanding helps them cope more effectively.
For phobias this education may include: info on nature of disorder, role of phobic stimuli, what having a specific phobia is like, avoidance and safety behaviours, anticipatory anxiety, panic attacks, FFF, impact on families and friends, other psychotherapies, treatments, importance of support and dealing with stigma.
77
explain challenging unrealistic or anxious thoughts in treating phobias
People with specific phobias usually have anxious thoughts that may be unrealistic and negative.
May overestimate how bad it will be to be exposed to it.
Underestimate their ability to cope.
Family can help by encouraging a person to recognise and challenge unrealistic thoughts.
78
explain discouraging avoidance behaviours in treating phobias
Family should know that avoidance is bad even when distressed- just increases phobia.
Learn to gently and calmly encourage and support to not avoid and possibly challenge.
79
```
biological factors for phobias:
predisposing risk factor
precipitating risk factor
perpetuating risk factor
protective risk factor
```
```
Biological factors
GABA dysfunction
Role of the stress response
LTP
"Use of benzodiazepines
Breathing retraining
Physical exercise "
```
80
```
psychological factors for phobias:
predisposing risk factor
precipitating risk factor
perpetuating risk factor
protective risk factor
```
Psychological
```
Classical conditioning
"Operant conditioning
Cognitive bias (memory bias and catastrophic thinking)"
"CBT
Systematic desensitisation "
```
81
```
social factors for phobias:
predisposing risk factor
precipitating risk factor
perpetuating risk factor
protective risk factor
```
Social factors
Specific environmental trigger
Stigma related to receiving treatment
Psychoeducation (challenging unrealistic or anxious thoughts and not encouraging avoidance)
82
what is resilience? what are characteristics of resilient people?
```
The ability to successfully cope with adversity and to bounce back and restore positive functioning.
Learned not innate. So can increase it.
Characteristics of people who are resilient:
High self-esteem
High self-efficacy
Positive outlook
Flexibility
Good emotional control
Good relationships and support
Ability to interpret stressors
Ability to make realistic plans and follow through
Problem solving skills
Communication skills
```
83
what are the biological protective factors for maintaining mental health?
```
Adequate diet
Reduces physical problems
Helps sleep, energy levels, mood and mental health.
Good variety of food.
Balanced.
No off limits food.
Eating when hungry and stopping when full.
Five food groups.
Drink lots of water: about 8 glasses.
Regular meals.
Not relying on supplements.
don’t rely on drugs and alcohol- depletes body of nutrients and can disrupt food cycles, worsening mood and healthy eating habits.
```
Adequate sleep
Quantity: 10 for school children, 9 for teenagers, 8 for adults.
quality: feel rested.
Poor sleep impaired affective, behavioural and cognitive functioning, affecting wellbeing.
Professional support for those with sleep disorders.
84
what are the psychological protective factors for maintaining mental health?
CBT
Cognitive restructuring aims at replacing erroneous or dysfunctional thoughts (cognitive distortions) with better cognitions.
journals, ‘daily thought records’ to identify and correct problematic thinking.
85
what are the social protective factors for maintaining mental health? what are the types of support?
Social Support
Access to care or empathy from others.
Not avoiding social situations.
Appraisal support: help from that improves a person’s understanding of their mental health problem and the resources and coping strategies that may be needed to deal.
Tangible assistance: the provision of material support, such as services, financial assistance or goods. Deceases feelings of loneliness.
Informational support: community groups and agencies provide this support about how to cope with a mental health problem, symptoms and contributory factors. Eg. Online support forums provide non-threatening and anonymous exchange of info.
Emotional support: from family, friends and the community show expressions of empathy and by reassurance that a person is cared for, valued and will be helped in any way required. Decreases loneliness and isolation.
86
what is the trans theoretical model of behaviour change?
A stage-based model that describes and explains how people intentionally change their behaviour to achieve a health-related goal.
5 stages.
Own pace.
Can go back stages.
87
what happens in the pre-contemplation stage? (1)
Not ready to change.
No inclination to change.
Feel there is no problem.
Underestimate the benefit of change and overestimate costs of change.
To move: must experience a negative emotion or mood related to their problem and consequences. Must need to acknowledge it is a problem.
No intention to make change in 6 months.
88
what happens in the contemplation stage? (2)
```
Think about change.
Weight up pros and cons.
Do not change.
Seek information on impacts of behaviour and ways to change.
Intend to take action in 6 months.
```
89
what happens in the preparation stage? (3)
Mentally prepare.
Plan.
See the pros of changing as bigger than cons.
Intend to take action in 30 days.
90
what happens in the action stage? (4)
Make visible changes.
Implement behaviours instead of problem behaviours.
Time and commitment and energy is needed.
Relapse is possible.
Can go to next stage if they see improvement.
Has changed behaviour in less than 6 months.
91
what happens in the maintenance/relapse stage? (5)
Successfully kept behaviour over a long time without relapse (6 months of more).
Focus on avoiding relapse and triggers that may cause it.
When triggers are identified, strategies can be used to maintain the new behaviour, or to return to behaviour following a relapse.
92
what are strengths of the transtheroretical model?
Useful in understanding behaviour change that is self-initiated or recommended by a professional as part of an intervention program.
Emphasis that behaviour changed gradually overtime.
Considers individual differences- stages and readiness to change.
Allows for setbacks from which a person can recover.
93
what are limitations of the trans theoretical model?
Not enough research on variables that influence stage transitions that limits the usefulness of the model for treatment interventions.
Model does not show differences between stop and start behaviours caused by different cognitions.
Lack of research to justify validity of time frames.
Question distinction between stages and the order.
Role of a person’s decision making is overstated whereas social and cultural influences are understated.
