Biological Basis and Stress Flashcards
1
Q
what happens to sensory information when it is received by the brain? what does this allow? What does processing often involve?
A
When the sensory information is received at the brain it is processed. This enables perception—interpretation of the sensory information so meaning can be assigned
Processing often involves integrating incoming information with other information already in the brain
2
Q
what actions can the brain carry out if required? What does this do?
A
If required, the brain will also coordinate a response by initiating appropriate action by sending neural messages to the muscles, glands and internal organs
This, in turn, enables muscles to move, causes glands to secrete hormones and initiates the responses of internal organs, thereby enabling the body systems to function effectively
3
Q
What are the building blocks of the nervous system?
A
Neurons and glial cells (or glia) are the building blocks of the nervous system
4
Q
how many neutrons and glial cells are there? what are each? How and why do neurons vary?
A
The NS contains billions of neurons and glial cells
Neurons are specialised cells that are organised in circuits and pathways and are involved in the reception, processing and transmission of information in the NS
Glial cells support the neurons function
Neurons vary in size, shape and location depending on their function
5
Q
what is the structure of a dendrite? how many may a neurone have? What does the structure allow neutrons to do?
A
An extension of the neuron (like a branch)
Most have protrusions called dendritic spines (small)
A neuron can have 1 to 20 dendrites
Dendrites can have one or many branches- the spines may be in the thousands
A neuron may have thousands of connections through branches and spines
6
Q
What is the function of dendrites? What do spines provide? What is plasticity?
A
Detect and receive information from other neurons
Spines provide a site with receptors where neurons can connect and receive info from other neurons
Plasticity is the ability for the neutron to grow more dendrites
Each spine may have multiple kinds of receptors which gather different types of chemical information
Consequently, neuron can receive thousands of messaged at once
Dendrites send received info down the soma where it is integrated
7
Q
what does the soma do?
A
The soma collects and integrates information from thousands of neurons
Once integrated by the soma, information is sent along the axon
8
Q
what is the structure of an axon? How many?
A
A tube-like extension
Most neurons only have one but some have branches that allow messages to be sent to multiple cells
Vary in length (m-mm)
Nerves are cable-like bunches of axons
9
Q
what is the function of an axon?
A
Transits neural information to other neurons or cells
10
Q
what is the structure of myelin? what are the gaps called?
A
Many axons are myelinated, not all
A white, fatty substance (made of certain glial cells)
Surrounds the axon
Not continuous, occurs in segments that are separated by unmyelinated gaps called nodes of Ranvier
11
Q
what is the function of myelin?
A
Insulates the axon and prevents interference from activity of other neurons (plastic on a cable)
Allows rapid movement of messages (no interruption or distortion)
Messages travel faster
Neural messages jump from node to node which is believed to speed up transmission
12
Q
what is the structure of axon terminals?
A
Small branches at the end of axons called axon collaterals
At the end of these are axon terminals
Each axon terminal has a small know-like swelling at its tip called a terminal button , synaptic vesicle, synaptic know or synaptic button.
It is small and like a sac
13
Q
what is the function of axon terminals?
A
Store and secrete neurotransmitters that are manufactured by the neuron and carries a chemical message to other neurons or cells.
Neural impulses stimulate the release of neurotransmitters
The collaterals and axon terminals allow messages to be sent to many neurons at once
14
Q
what are sensory neutrons? what do they do? where do they receive info from? what are the also called?
A
Receive information from external or internal environments
Detect and respond to specific information
Transmit info to CNS
Info from external: received by sense organs, internal: from muscles, organs and glands
Has a sensory receptor to receive sensory information
Also called afferent neurons
15
Q
what are motor neurones? what do they do? what is an important aspect of their structure? What are the also called?
A
Transmit messaged from the CNS to muscles, organs and glands
Enable muscles to move, glands to secrete and activate internal organs
The axon is covered in myelin sheath
Also called efferent neurons
16
Q
what are interneurones? where are they? what do they do?
A
Transmit messaged from the CNS to muscles, organs and glands
Enable muscles to move, glands to secrete and activate internal organs
The axon is covered in myelin sheath
Also called efferent neurons
17
Q
what are neurohormones? where are they released? what are two types and what do they do?
A
Chemical messenger molecules
Released into the bloodstream
Oxytocin: involved in contractions of the womb during childbirth and lactation
Vasopressin: involved in retaining water in the body and contrition of blood vessels
18
Q
what do neurotransmitters allow for? Where do they occur? Where do they bind?
A
Communication over synapses
Occurs between terminal button of the pre-synaptic neuron and the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron
Bind to specific receptor sites in the post synaptic neurone
19
Q
what is reuptake? what do some medications do with this process?
A
Neurotransmitters that do not bind are reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neurone in a process called reuptake
Many medications work by affecting the process of reuptake in order to increase or decrease the availability of neurotransmitters in the brain
20
Q
what are the two types of neurotransmitters and a description of both?
A
There are two types of neurotransmitters, excitatory and inhibitory
Excitatory: stimulate or activate post-synaptic neurone to preform their functions
Inhibitory: block of prevent the post-synaptic neurone from firing. Uncontrolled activation of GABA could result in a spread throughout the brain, causing sizers similar to anxiety and epilepsy
21
Q
what is the function of glutamate?
A
memory and learning
22
Q
is glutamate ex or in?
A
ex
23
Q
what does too much glutamate cause?
A
migraines or seizures
24
Q
what does too little glutamate cause?
A
lethargy
25
what is the function of GABA?
arousal
26
is GABA in or ex?
in
27
what does too much GABA cause?
lethargy
28
what does too little GABA cause?
seizures, insomnia, anxiety, tremors
29
what is the function of Acetylcholine?
muscle movement, learning and memory
30
is acetylcholine ex or in?
ex
31
what does too much acetylcholine cause?
depression
32
what does too little acetylcholine do?
Alzheimer's disease
33
what does dopamine do?
muscle movement, attention, emotions, learning, memory
34
is dopamine ex or in?
ex or in
35
what does too much dopamine cause?
schizophrenia
36
what does too little dopamine cause?
Parkinson's disease
37
what does serotonin do?
mood, hunger, sleep, arousal
38
is serotonin ex or in?
ex
39
what does too much serotonin do?
euphoria, mania
40
what does too little serotonin do?
depression
41
what does norepinephrine do?
alertness, sleep
42
is norepinephrine ex or in?
ex and in
43
what does too much norepinephrine do?
anxious, stressed, high arousal, headaches
44
what does too little norepinephrine cause?
depression
45
what is the lock and key process?
Each type of NT has a chemically distinct shape
After being released, they search for the correctly shaped receptor site in order to bind to the post-synaptic neurone’s receptors
In order to bind to the receptor, the NT must be precisely matched
The binding unlocks the postsynaptic neurone’s responses so that the neurotransmitter can cause changes in the neurone (excitatory or inhibitory effects)
The Nt is the key and the receptor site is the lock
46
what can interference with NTS cause?
Too much or too little of neurotransmitters can impact how we think, feel or behave because of its impact on the NS
Abnormal levels can be linked with problems with metal processes such as dopamine in Parkinson’s Disease
47
What is Parkinson's Disease? what is it characterised by?
A CNS neurodegenerative disorder characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms
48
What are the motor symptoms of PD caused by? what NT is affected?
Motor symptoms come from the degeneration and loss of neurones in the substantia nigra
This is located in the midbrain and has a role in the control of voluntary muscle movements so that they can be executed in a smooth and coordinated manner such as sequences of movement needed for walking, writing, balancing and talking
Neurones here produce the NT dopamine so when this area is damaged, the amount of dopamine available for motor activity reduces as neurones die
The level of dopamine continues to fall over the years
49
when is PD diagnosed? How many people have it? what is diagnosis based on?
Usually diagnosed between 55 and 65, though it can happen at any time
1 in 350 people in Australia have it
Diagnosis is based on symptoms, a neurological examination and a review of past medical history
There are no really adequate or specific biological or radiological tests available for a diagnosis that would confirm the presence of the disorder
50
what causes PD? when is risk increased? what is the only factor?
The cause is idiopathic (no known cause)
It is not known what causes dopamine producing neurones in the substantia nigra to die
There is a slightly increased risk in families
Age is the only know factor
51
What is GABA? What happens to it in PD? What could this cause? What might it do to dopamine?
GABA is an amino acid
It reduces the sensitivity of muscle cells to nerve stimulation, decreasing muscle movement
The amount of GABA in the brain decreases with PD, particulaly in the subthalamic nucleus, which could cause tremors, restless leg syndrome, dyskinesia (impairment of voluntary movement) and dystonia (muscles contract uncontrollably)
There is also some evidence that GABA functions as a dopamine antagonist, blocking the effect of it, which is already depleted in PD
The result is worsened symptoms such as bradykinesia (slowness of movement)
52
what drug is used to help with GABA?
The drug baclofen (branded Lioresal), a GABA agonist taken to relieve symptoms binds with GABA receptors and mimics its actions
53
what are symptoms of PD?
Develop slowly and gradually worsens over years
Symptoms vary greatly
Motor and non-motor symptoms vary from day to day
54
what are the four key motor symptoms used for diagnosis of PD?
Tremor involving continuous, involuntary shaking. 30% of people with PD don’t have tremors. Most often they are resting tremors and occur when the limb is not in use.
Muscle rigidity or stiff muscles whereby the muscles seem unable to relax and are tight even at rest. People have difficulty performing automatic movements.
Slowness of voluntary movement especially when executing repetitive movements, decrease in fine coordination (postural instability), balance problems and gait disturbances tend to occur later in the course of the disorder. Inability to remain steady, upright or corrective action to prevent a fall often results in falling.
Non-motor symptoms: decrease or loss of sense of smell (anosmia), decrease in sweating, increased sensitivity to temperature, fatigue, confusion, panic attacks, anxiety disorders, depression, slowness of thinking, impaired planning and decision making, memory loss.
55
Is there a cure for PD? What are some treatments and why mightn't they be working very well?
Cure is unkown
Tremors, rigidity and slowness of movement can be relieved by medications that restore the deficiency of dopamine by increasing dopamine levels in the brain.
Medications: those that are converted into dopamine and those that mimic dopamine and are able to stimulate reception of dopamine by neurones.
Evidence that midbrain dopamine neurones release dopamine and GABA.
It is believed that overlooking this and only treating for dopamine loss might be why the treatments haven’t been very successful.
56
what is the CNS?
Consists of all nerves in the brain and spinal cord
57
what does the brain do? how is it organised?
Brain: master of information and decision making organ. It plays a crucial role in everything we do.
Receives and interprets information from the sensory systems and sends motor messages out to all parts of the body so that a coordinated and appropriate response can be made.
Brain cells are organised into identifiable areas and structures that have specialised functions.
58
what is the spinal cord and what does it do?
Spinal cord: a complex cable or tract of nerve fibres from the base of the brain to the lower back.
Connects the brain to other parts of the body via its connection to the PNS- it is like an information highway.
Receives sensory information from the PNS and transmits it to the brain.
Transmits motor messages from the brain to the PNS, including muscles, organs and glands.
59
what is the spinal reflex?
The spinal cord can initiate simple motor reactions in the form of reflexes without the brain.
The spinal reflex is unconscious, involuntary and automatic
A response to stimuli
A survival mechanism and may save a life
Also known as a reflex arc
60
what are the four steps of a spinal reflex arc?
Sensory neurones carry the message along sensory pathways to the spinal cord.
Interneurons in the spinal cord relay the message to the motor neurones.
Motor neurones carry the message along a motor pathway to skeletal muscles, causing a withdrawal reflex.
The message is received in the area of the brain that processes this type of information (somatosensory cortex) and interprets it as pain.
61
what is the PNS? What is its too functions?
The PNS is all the parts of the NS that aren’t the brain and spinal cord.
It has two functions:
To carry information from the sensory organs to internal organs in the CNS (sensory function).
To convey information from the CNS to the muscles, organs and glands (motor function).
62
what are the divisions of the PNS?
Somatic nervous system- controls voluntary movement
| Autonomic nervous system- controls involuntary movement and functioning
63
what does the SNS do?
```
Initiates and controls all voluntary movement of skeletal muscles (those connected to bones). Carry motor (efferent) information from the spinal cord to skeletal muscles.
Carry sensory (afferent) information from the world to the spinal cord.
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64
what is the autonomic nervous system? What is it divided into? How does it control things?
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A network of of nerves that carry messages between the CNS and involuntary muscles (smooth, non-skeletal, visceral), integral organs and glands
Controls automatically and unconsciously
Maintains homeostasis (normal functioning) and prepares our body for fight or flight (threatened)
It is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
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65
what does the sympathetic nervous system?
Dominates when highly aroused or needing a sudden burst of energy
Prepares muscles and organs in the body and makes resources available during activity and when faced with threat- fight flight response
Allows us to physically respond to a threat as effectively as possible
66
what does the parasympathetic nervous system to?
Responsible for reversing the effects of the sympathetic nervous system and returning homeostasis
Functions the majority of the time
67
What do pupils do? Sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Pupils- Regulates amount of light entering the eye
Dilates Contracts
68
what do salivary glands do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Salivary glands Digestion Decreases saliva Increases saliva
69
what does the heart do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Heart Pumping blood Accelerates heart rate Slows heart rate
70
what do bronchioles of lungs do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Bronchioles of lungs Breathing Dilates Contracts
71
what does the stomach do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Stomach Digestion decreases contractions Increases contractions
72
what does the liver do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
liver Produces bile to aid digestion, maintains blood sugar (glucose level) Increases the release of glucose Decreases the release of glucose
73
what does the gall bladder do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
liver Produces bile to aid digestion, maintains blood sugar (glucose level) Increases the release of glucose Decreases the release of glucose
74
what do adrenal glands do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Adrenal glands Secrete the hormones adrenalin and noradrenaline Stimulates hormone secretion resulting in increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, relaxation of intestinal muscles Inhibits hormone secretion
75
what does the bladder do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Bladder Urine storage Relaxes Increases contractions, constricts
76
what do the intestines do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Intestine Digestion Relaxes Increases contractions
77
what do the genitals do? sympathetic and parasympathetic?
Genitals Reproduction Excite Relax
78
what do sweat glands do? sympathetic and parasympathetic
Sweat glands Regulates temperature Increase production of perspiration Decreases production of perspiration
79
what is the awareness of conscious responses to sensory stimuli? attention? reaction? complexity? control? learning?
- involves awareness
- paid attention to stimuli
- voluntary or intentional behaviour
- often goal directed and purposeful
- can be more complex a response
- tend to vary
- can be learnt
- can control it
80
what is the unconscious response to sensory stimuli? awareness? attention? how does it increase chance of survival? complexity? learning? control?
- reaction does not involve awareness
- don't have to pay attention for it to happen
- involuntary or unintentional
- reflexive or automatic increasing chances of survival
- most are simple responses
- tend to occur in the same way each time
- don't need learning
may not be able to be controlled
81
what are stressors?
Stimuli that cause or produce stress and challenge our ability to cope.
82
what is an internal stressor?
originates within individual such as feeling pain that is perceived as signalling illness.
83
what is an external stressor?
originates outside the individual from situations and events in the environment such as having too much homework, being nagged or being on an overcrowded train.
84
what is stress and when is a stressor perceived as stressful? what do all stressors do? What sorts of changes are these?
A state of physiological and phycological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope.
A subjective experience and therefore depends on our interpretation of a potential stressor.
Often a stressor is perceived as stressful when we believe that we may not or do not have the ability or resources to cope with their demands or consequences.
All stressors produce a non-specific stress response. This means that regardless of whether a stressor involves eustress or distress, our body undergoes the same physiological response.
Both stressors are likely to cause you to experience physiological arousal involving changes such as increased heart rate.
85
what causes a stressor to be viewed as positive or negative?
Whether or not a stressor is perceived as positive or negative, depends on individual factors such as personality, prior experience and perception of whether they have the resources to cope.
86
what is acute stress?
brief and specific stress in response to the demands of a particular situation, such as a deadline, performance or when dealing with a difficult challenge or traumatic event. High arousal for a short period of time.
87
what is episodic acute stress?
when acute stress occurs over and over again such as the death of a loved pet, then developing a health problem, followed by difficulties at work or school.
88
what is chronic stress?
involves ongoing demands, pressures and worries that are long-lasting. Produces an increased arousal level that persists over a relatively long time and is likely to be harmful in some way to our health and wellbeing, psychologically and physically.
89
what is eustress?
a positive psychological response to a stressor. Indicated by the presence of positive psychological states such as feeling enthusiastic and motivated, excited, active and alert. Typically short-term and can provide energy and motivation needed to achieve a goal or peak performance. Not harmful.
90
what is distress?
a negative psychological response to a stressor. Indicated by the presence of negative psychological states such as anger, anxiety, nervousness, irritability and tension. Can be short-term but can also persist for long-term if not addressed or managed. Prolonged distress can be harmful.
91
what are sources of stress? What are the five types?
Anything can be a source of stress, therefore a stressor. daily pressures, life events, acculturative stress, major stressors, catastrophes
92
what are daily pressures? How harmful is this stress?
minor day-to-day hassles. The more hassles we experience, the more symptoms of physical and mental health problems we are likely to have.
When hassles permits or build up, physical health problems such as flu, sore throat, headaches, mood disturbances and backaches are reported.
Studies have also found that the accumulation of daily hassles can contribute more to ill health that a single, significant life event such as getting divorced.
93
what are life events? what are some examples? what is the scale? What does this scale indicate?
a change that forces us to adapt to new circumstances
EG: the loss of a significant relationship, leaving home, beginning a new career, moving schools.
Such events typically have immediate consequences and require longer term adjustments.
They include choices we make, not just things that happen to us. They can be pleasant or unpleasant.
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
Holmes and Rahe found that people who score 200 life change units or more within a 12 month period are more prone to physical and psychological stress-related illnesses and diseases.
Stress-related diseases- likelihood diminishes with the value of the score.
The SRRS has been revised and along with similar scales it still used for stress research.
94
what is acculturative stress?
the stress people experience in trying to adapt to a new culture when living in it for a considerable period of time
Changing country is a challenging adjustment especially when there are significant cultural differences. There is a need to become acculturated, that is adopt the values, customs and language of the new culture. Thus acculturative stress is the stress people experience when trying to adapt to a new culture when living there for a considerable period of time.
Can occur when people willingly relocate for better opportunities of flee for safety.
People frequently language difficulties, racial or ethnic discrimination, lower socioeconomic status (qualifications not being recognised), loneliness and homesickness.
95
what are other conflicts involved in acculturative stress?
Also face conflicts over preserving old values and beliefs and adopting to the customs of their new culture. Refugees and asylum seekers must also come to terms with the hardships they have experienced back home. All these things can be stressors and have debilitating effects.
96
what influences how much acculturative stress is experienced?
Factors influence how much acculturative stress is experienced. For instance a society that accepts diversity, acculturative stress is reduced. Ease is also enhanced when they are familiar with the language and customs, advanced education and have social support from friends, family and organisations formed by and for members of the cultural group.
Attitudes are also important in determining the degree of this stress. Eg. Individuals that continue to value their own culture but but seek to integrate into the new culture have a lower level of stress that those that hold onto their old culture and avoid contacting with the new culture.
Age, education, religion and gender have also been significantly associated with differences in the frequency of experiencing racial discrimination.
97
what are major stressors? what kind of event may it be? are they always directly felt? what are they sometimes described as?
an event that is extraordinarily stressful or disturbing for almost everyone who experiences it. May be a single, one-off event or a continuous event such as a terminal illness.
It does not need to be directly experienced.
Often described as psychologically traumatic events because they involve threatening events.
Potentially traumatic events are powerful and upsetting incidents that often affect individuals in ways that intrude into daily life.
Examples: acts of violence (war etc), natural disasters, interpersonal violence (rape etc), involvement in a serious accident
98
what are symptoms associated with major stressors? physical, cognitive, behavioural, emotional
physical: hypervigilance (excessive alertness), easily startled, exhaustion, disturbed sleep, aches and pains
Cognitive: intrusive thoughts, recurring memories of the event, visual images of the event, nightmares, poor concentration and memory, disorientation, confusion
Behavioural: avoidance of places or activities that are reminders of the events, social withdrawal and isolation, loss of interest in normal activities
emotional: fear, numbness and detachment, depression, guilt, anger, irritability, anxiety and panic
99
are symptoms of major stressors dangerous?
As long as these symptoms do not last too long and are not too severe, they are normal reactions.
A minority of people will develop more serious conditions such as depression, acute stress disorder, PTSD, anxiety disorders, alcohol or drug problems.
100
what are catastrophes?
an unpredictable event that causes widespread damage or suffering. A stressor of massive proportion- the majority of people would interpret as stressful.
Usually occurs suddenly, affects many people and is out of their control
Sometimes called cataclysmic event or a disaster
Natural or attributable to humans
Entire towns or communities are devastated. Many left homeless and suffer personal losses for a prolonged period.
Affect individuals, groups and entire communities as well as people less directly: nearby, witnessing struggles, or know someone affected.
The amount of exposure and whether it is first or second hand affect the risk of future mental illness problems.
Examples: natural disasters, bushfires, floods
101
what is stress associated with catastrophes?
Most survivors experience common stress reactions after the event
Reactions may last days or weeks and may be physical and psychological
While most survivors can come to terms with what happened on their own or with support, many develop chronic stress related symptoms and need more help.
Some survivors and witnesses may have physiological or psychological symptoms that can last after the event has passed.
These reactions can be called Acute Distress Disorder and PTSD
102
what two models describe and explain physiological responses to stress? what are some comparisons?
fight-flight-freeze and general adaption syndrome.
Both describe patterns of involuntary biological process that can occur in response to a stressor.
Changes occur in a similar way in all individuals.
GAS is longer lasting and includes flight flight reactions within the first series of three stages.
In edition the model emphasises the wear and tear on the body with prolonged stress.
103
what is the fight-flight-freeze response? what is it activated by? What is it thought to be? How long does the response last for? what is fight, flight, freeze?
When as person is exposed to a threat there is a sequence of bodily changes that occur rapidly.
Our ANS is involved in instantly and automatically responding to the threat.
It automatically activated F-F-F
The changes associated with each reaction are believed to be a survival mechanism enabling us to survive in a threatening situations.
Fight-flight-freeze is involuntary, physical and sudden
Fight- confront or fight off threat
Flight- escape by running away
Freeze- keeping still and silent
All three are considered adaptive responses that enable us to deal with a threat and minimise harm.
Response doesn’t last for a prolonged time
104
how does our body prepare us to fight or flee?
To prepare our body for either all energy is diverted from non-essential body systems to those that will help us.
Both are initiated by the sympathetic nervous system and involve changes such as:
Increased heart rate and blood pressure
Redistribution of blood supply from the skin intestines to muscles
Increased breathing
Increased glucose secretion
Dilation of pupils
Suppression of functions that are not needed and conserve energy such as digestion and sexual drive
105
how does the fight flight reaction work physiologically?
When a threat is perceived a signal is sent to the hypothalamus (via amygdala)
It responds to the stressor by activating the sympathetic nervous system
This system stimulates the adrenal medulla which is the inner part of the adrenal gland (above each kidney)
Adrenaline is secreted (also called Epinephrine) and noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine).
These stress hormones circulate through the bloodstream, activating various organs including the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys, resulting in bodily changes that characterise the fight flight reactions.
The brain-body pathways that activates fight-flight is called the sympathetic adreno-medullary system (SAM).
106
what is the freeze response? why does it occur? What happens to our body? what is the frozen state called?
Sometimes we cannot run away and are unable to fight or that the threat is so overwhelming that there is little or no immediate or apparent chance of successfully fighting or escaping.
This is when we might freeze.
Body movements and vocalisations stop and heart rate slows, blood pressure drops and tense muscles collapse and become still.
Often before we freeze there is a reflexive ‘orientating response’ of the head or eyes towards the threat.
This is accompanied by hypervigilance- being alert.
This frozen state is called tonic immobility.
107
what are advantages of the freeze response?
animals often stay still when threatened to avoid detection. The frozen state also conserves energy until the predator leaves. Useful when there may be more attacks if there is movement or if increases chance of escaping such as when the predator believes that the prey is dead.
108
what are disadvantages of the freeze response?
not an adaptive response when it causes you to freeze in something like an interview or overwhelms a mind before an exam or restricts the everyday life of an individual with a phobia.
109
what are the biological processes underlying the freeze response?
Not fully understood.
It is believed that the sympathetic nervous system precedes this state and becomes a part of this state.
When it is initiated, the energy conserving ‘rest and relaxation’ actions of the parasympathetic nervous system dominate over the existing effects of the sympathetic nervous system activation.
This results in the high arousal of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS.
This results in a condition that is characterised by both energy conservation and a mobilised state ready for action.
This has been likened to the organism having one foot on the accelerator (symp) and one on the break (parasymp).
110
why can the body not maintain FFF? what is then activated? How does this compare to FFF?
The body cannot maintain the fight-flight for a prolonged period of time.
This is partially because the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline do not last a long time.
Therefore the HPA axis is activated- a more direct link between the brain and the endocrine system.
The fight-flight comes first, then the HPA axis if it is still lasting.
HPA axis is slower but longer lasting.
111
how does the HPA Axis work?
The hypothalamus stimulates the nearby pituitary gland and this causes the secretion of of hormones such as adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) into the blood which carries it to the adrenal cortex.
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex (outer surface of adrenal glands) to secret additional stress hormones called corticosteroids.
Cortisol is most abundant of these hormones, accounting for about 95% of glucocorticoid activity.
Once the level of cortisol reaches a certain level, the hypothalamus is signalled to turn off the stress response.
112
what are the effects of cortisol?
Energises the body by increasing energy supplies such as blood sugar.
Enhances metabolism.
Anti-inflammatory effect by blocking the activity of white blood cells that contribute to inflammation.
Retards tissue repair, which slows wound healing.
Suppresses the activity of the immune system.
113
what are the effects of prolonged cortisol release?
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Impaired immune system functioning and increased vulnerability to disease such as colds and flu.
Impaired cognitive performance, learning problems, impaired memory formation and recall (by impacting hippocampus functioning) and mental disorders such as depression, PTSD and anxiety.
Increased risk of:
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Blood sugar imbalance (hyperglycemia)
Atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries)
Cardiovascular disease
Diabetes
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114
How was the research of Selye's General Adaptations Syndrome carried out? What was found? What was concluded?
Research was conducted on rats that were exposed to stressors such as tail pulling, prolonged exposure to heat and cold, mild electric shocks, bacterial infections, strenuous exercise and forced restraint.
It was found that the physiological arousal patterns in response to the stressors where generally the same- adrenal glands enlarged, gastrointestinal ulcers developed, weight loss and shrinking of vital organs of the immune system such as lymph glands.
It was concluded that stress is a non-specific condition which can be brought on by either external or internal stressors.
Research on humans was also completed. He observed a number of hospital patients who had experienced death, retrenchment from jobs and arrest.
Although the stressors were different, the patients had different symptoms as a result of the stressors.
115
what did Selye make? what does it mean?
A three-stage stress model that explains the physiological response to stress that occurs regardless of the stressor encountered.
This means that the GAS is non-specific and will occur whatever the stressor.
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when does stage 1, the alarm reaction stage occur? What is this first stage?
Occurs when the organism first becomes aware of the stressor. This initial stage, is a defensive reaction and results in tension, alertness and readiness to respond to the stressor.
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what is the shock component of stage 1?
the body goes into a temporary state of shock and its ability to deal with the stressor drops below the normal level. The body acts as if injured, for example blood pressure and body temperature drop and there is a temporary loss of muscle tone. Could faint or have a heart attack.
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what is the countershock component of stage 1?
the sympathetic nervous system is activated and the body’s resistance to the stressor increases. The organisms response is fight-flight-freeze. Adrenaline is released into the bloodstream and heart and respiratory systems speed up (due to this). This supplies the muscles with more energy (glucose and oxygen) allowing the organism to fight or flee as needed.
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when does stage 2, the resistance stage occur?
If the stressor is not dealt with immediately, and the state of the stress continues, energy is still required and the body will continue responding in order to cope with and adapt to the stressor.
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What occurs during the resistance stage?
The body’s resistance to the particular stressor rises above normal level.
Intense arousal from alarm reaction stage diminishes but physiological arousal remains at a level above normal.
Since the body is taxed to generate resistance, all unnecessary physiological process are shut down eg. digestion, sex drive, menstruation, production of testosterone and sperm and growth.
Cortisol is released to energise the body and help repair tissue.
Cortisol suppresses the immune system, leaving the organism with increased susceptibility to illness.
If the effort to deal with the initial stressor during the resistance stage is successful the organism will have adapted to the stressor and the body eventually returns to normal state of functioning.
If the stressor is not dealt with during the resistance stage, and stress continues, the organism enters an exhaustion stage.
A person may appeal withdrawn or moody.
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when does the exhaustion stage occur?
The body cannot sustain its resistance and the effects of the stressor can no longer be dealt with.
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what occurs during the exhaustion stage?
Resources are depleted and resistance to disease is weak and the organism becomes more vulnerable tp physical and mental disorders.
It is characterised by extreme fatigue, high levels of anxiety and symptoms of depression, nightmares and impaired sexual performance.
Physical disorders such as: hypertension, gastrointestinal problems, heart disease, and even death.
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what are strengths of the GAS model?
Strengths
As a model, it provides rich info about the physiological processes involved in stress.
It has provided laboratory evidence for the role of the brain, endocrine system and PNS in stress.
Selye established that the greater the intensity of the stressor, the greater the physiological response.
Selye established a strong connection between extreme prolonged/chronic stress and certain diseases.
Results also showed that prolonged stress could lead to death in lab rats.
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what are limitations of the GAS model?
Limitations
Overemphasis on biological processes.
Model predominantly based only on the research with lab rats, which are a limited model of the human stress response.
Rats responses to stress are less varied and less complex than that of humans.
Selye has applied this model to humans without consideration of any psychological and environmental factors.
Selye has not recognised the role of emotions and cognitions in the stress response.
Generalisations of Selye’s findings to humans are limited as his research involved rat subjects.
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what factors influence how we react to as stressor? Are they independent of each other?
Prior experience with stressors and stress responses
Attitudes
Motivation
Level of self-esteem
General out-look on life (optimism vs. pessimism)
Personality characteristics
Coping skills
Perception of how much control we have over a stressful event. NO
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what does the Lazarus and Folkman model describe? What two key psychological factors does it focus on?
describe and explain individual differences in how people respond to as stressor from a psychological perspective.
Their model focuses on two key psychological factors that determine the extent to which an event is experienced as stressful:
The meaning of the event to the individual
The individual’s judgement of their ability to cope with it
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what key ideas does the Lazarus and Folkman model describe? about the environment? about appraisal? about imbalances?
Stress is not a result of the individual alone or the environment alone.
The environment can influence the individual, but the individual can also influence the environment.
An individual’s appraisal of the situation and their resources for dealing with that situation determine whether or not they experience stress and the nature of their stress response.
When there is an imbalance between a person’s appraisal of the demands of the situation and their estimation of their ability to meet those demands, then they will experience stress.
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there are two stages of the Lazarus and Folkman model. Describe the first. what questions do we ask ourselves? if it is decided as stressful, what additional appraisals are made?
1. Primary appraisal: the recognition of a potentially stressful situation. The significance of the situation is judged. You ask yourself: is the situation stressful, neutral or irrelevant? Does this even matter to me? The outcome of the primary appraisal is a decision about whether the situation is irrelevant, benign/positive or stressful. If we decide the situation is stressful, then we engage in additional appraisals. These are:
harm/loss: how much damage has already occurred?
Threat: what else could go wrong?
Challenge: what future gains might there be?
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what happens in the second stage of Lazarus and Folkman's model? how is stress decided?
2. Secondary appraisal: the person considers what options are available to them and how they will respond. The person acknowledges the resources they have including:
Internal: strength, determination
External: money support. The stressor may be reappraised at this point. During this stage a person determines whether the demands of the situation can be met with the resources available.
If the demands outweigh resources, then a negative stress response (distress)
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what are strengths of Lazarus and Folkman's model?
Strengths
Focuses on psychological determinants of the stress response over which we have control, as stress is an interaction with the environment in which the individual has an active role.
Emphasis on the personal nature and unique appraisal/perception involved in stress.
Explains why individuals respond in different ways at the same sorts of stressors (accounts for individual differences).
Allows for the fact that stressors and the circumstances under which the occur can change over time.
Allows us to change our thinking (reappraisal) about a stressor and our response.
Has led to the development of different methods/strategies for management of psychological responses to stress.
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what are limitations of Lazarus and Folkman's model?
Limitations
Individuals may not always be conscious of all the factors causing them to experience a stress response. For example we can experience a stress response without ever having thought about the situation or event.
Overlooks physiological responses.
Difficult to test through experimental research because of the subjective nature of individual response to stress.
The linear approach does not allow for the individual variation in progression through the stages.
Primary and secondary appraisals can interact with one another and are often undertaken simultaneously. Thus these appraisals are difficult to isolate for study as separate variables.
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What are strategies for coping with stress?
All the different things we do to manage and reduce the stress experienced as a result of problems, issues of difficult situations that arise in life.
Definition: cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and or external stressor that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person in a stressful situation.
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what are less effective coping strategies?
Less effective coping strategies reduce stress temporarily but can have an adverse impact of physical and mental health. Eg. drugs, alcohol, ignoring the problem, denying responsibility, yelling, swearing and becoming agitated.
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what are more effective coping strategies?
More effective coping strategies aim to change the problem itself, or change the perception of the stressor so that it becomes less important.
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what is exercise? What is it good for?
Exercise is physical activity that is usually planned and preformed to improve or maintain your physical condition.
For example going for a walk or run to improve your fitness and doing bicep curls to develop upper-arm strength.
Can reduce risk of serious disease
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what advantages of exercise as a coping strategy?
Increases demands on body for energy and in the process uses up the stress hormones. This helps the body return to normal functioning sooner.
Exercise can also help work out tension in muscles.
It increases the efficiency of cardiovascular system and increases strength, flexibility and stamina for encountering further stressors.
Many people experience short-term psychological benefits during or after exercise. It can promote relaxation.
Strenuous physical activity can produce chemical changes in the body that can improve psychological health. For example the brain releases mood-enhancing beta-endorphins during exercise. These relieve pain and increase a sense of well-being and relaxation.
Can provide distraction or time out from a stressor. It can also remove a person from a stress producing situation.
People who exercise with others can experience long term psychological benefits from the social interaction and potential social support the interactions can provide.
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what is context specific effectiveness?
A coping strategy is considered to have a context specific effectiveness when there is a match or good fit between the coping strategy that is used and the stressful situation.
It considered the situational determinants of coping effectiveness.
An effective strategy would take account of all the characteristics of the stressful situation. These may relate to the physical environment, the stressor and the individual involved.
There would be a match between the coping strategy, the situationally specific demands of the stressor and relevant individual characteristics.
A stressful context also includes the person confronted by the stressor.
Consequently the coping strategy most likely to be effective will also take account of the personal characteristics of the individual such as personality, knowledge, skills, interests, preferences, access to support from family, friends or community.
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what is coping flexibility? What abilities does this include?
Psychologists use the term coping flexibility to refer to the ability to effectively modify or adjust one’s coping strategies according to the demands of different stressful situations.
It includes the ability to:
recognise whether the use of flexible coping approach is appropriate for a specific situation
Select coping strategies that suit the situational circumstances
Recognise when the coping strategy is effective and discontinue one that is not
Produce and use more appropriate strategies if needed
Coping flexibility is considered to be an adaptive personality trait that enable us to adjust our thoughts, feelings or behaviour according to changing situational circumstances
Individuals with high coping flexibility readily adjust their coping strategies if they are ineffective and tend to use a variety of strategies.
Individuals with low coping flexibility rely on the same strategy and persist with them. They are not adaptive.
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what are approach and avoidance strategies?
Both achieve to deal with stress but go about it in different ways.
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what are approach coping strategies?
Involve efforts to confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects.
Activity is focused on the stressor to address the underlying problem and eliminate or minimise its impact.
These include strategies that involve engagement with the stressor such as seeking advice from an expert, accepting responsibility, going to a counsellor, finding more info, consider ways of handling it, thinking more positively, making a plan, drawing on past experience.
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what are benefits of approach coping strategies?
More adaptive and effective than avoidance strategies.
| People who rely on these tend to experience fewer psychological symptoms and can function more effectively
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what are limitations of approach coping strategies?
In the short term may increase stress whilst the individual is directly involved in the stressor.
May require a lot of energy and focus to deal with it and they may neglect other areas of their lives
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what are avoidant coping strategies?
Involve efforts that evade the stressor and deal indirectly with it and its effects.
Activity is focused away form the stressor and there is not attempt to actively confront the stressor and its causes.
Include strategies that involve behavioural or emotional disengagement such as denial, distracting, procrastination, fantasy, wishful thinking, escape, alcohol and drugs, sleeping, stopping trying, yell, talk to a friend.
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what are benefits of avoidance coping strategies?
Selectively avoiding certain aspects of a stressor to deal with unchangeable aspects can be seen as adaptive.
It allows conservation of energy to focus on other stressors that can be changed.
It may be appropriate if nothing can be done.
Can be more effective in the short term
Can provide time out while minimising potential stress from another stressor.
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what are limitations of avoidance coping strategies?
Tend to be maladaptive.
Excessive resilience tends to be associated with negative things such as increased mental and physical health problems.
Long-term avoidance strategies can also contribute to other problems such as delinquency, social inappropriate behaviour and substance abuse.
Tend to only be helpful in the short term and may prevent people from dealing with stressors in constructive ways.
Delaying can be detrimental when action is actually needed.
