Memory Flashcards
1
Q
what is memory?
A
Memory is the expression of what you have acquired.
2
Q
what is learning?
A
Learning is the acquisition of the skill or knowledge
3
Q
what is the link between learning and memory? what do both involve?
A
Both are closely related.
Memory suggests learning has taken place.
Without memory most learning would not occur.
Both involve many of the same neural mechanisms.
All memory is a neurological process that occurs as a result of learning.
4
Q
how is a memory formed? what is neural plasticity?
A
Memory is formed due to biochemical changes in synapses in response to different neurotransmitters. The process in which connections between neurons are removed and re-made on a continual basis
5
Q
what is synaptic plasticity? and what are the two ways it can happen?
A
The ability for synapses to change overtime. This can happen due to:
growth of new synaptic connections that strengthen the synapse (LTP).
Disuse of synaptic connections that weaken or eliminate the synapse (LTD).
6
Q
what are the characteristics of LTP? what is it? when does it occur? what is important in this?
A
Long lasting.
Strengthening of synaptic connections caused by memory formation resulting in enhanced functioning of neurons.
Occurs when the pre-synaptic neuron is more likely to activate the post-synaptic neuron.
Glutamate is important in this.
7
Q
what does glutamate do in LTP?
A
Initiates growth of new dendritic spines on post-synaptic neuron, making stronger connections.
Initiates growth of more synapses to increase synaptic connection to adjacent neurons.
8
Q
what are the structural and functional changes that occur as a result of LTP?
A
Structural changes: growth of dendritic spines, sprouting, dendrites become bushier, more connections.
Functional changes: increased levels of NTs (glutamate, dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin) in the synapse.
9
Q
what is LTD? what happens?
A
Long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission.
Post-synaptic neuron becomes less responsive to NTs released from pre.
Connection is weakened or eliminated.
10
Q
what is the importance of LTP and LTD?
A
Both are important in learning and memory.
pruned, unimportant connections (LTD) leave only important ones that can be strengthened (LTP).
Allows things to be cleared out.
LTD allows us to correct out learning and also helps erase irrelevant, wrong etc. thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
11
Q
what is memory? (2)
A
An active information processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information.
12
Q
what are the processes in memory?
A
encoding, storage and retrieval
13
Q
what is encoding?
A
The converting of information into a useable form that can be understood by the brain and thus stored in memory.
14
Q
what is storage?
A
The retention of the encoded information over time.
15
Q
what is retrieval?
A
The recovery of stored information and bringing it into consciousness for us to use when needed.
16
Q
what does the multi-store model/ Atkinson-Shiffrin Model describe?
A
Describes memory based on structural and control processes. These control processes are consciously selected and used by the individual and may vary in situations.
17
Q
how does information move from sensory memory to STM? what is this called?
A
Paying attention = sensory information goes from the sensory store to STM.
(Attention)
18
Q
what is rehearsal? (Multi-store Model)
A
Determines whether information is kept in short term, how long it is there and whether or not it is transferred to LTM.
19
Q
what is retrieval? (MSM)
A
The retrieval method specifies how much of the information in LTM will be located, recovered and brought into conscious awareness.
20
Q
what are the subsystems of sensory memory?
A
5 registers (each sense), including ionic (vision) and echoic (hearing) memory.
21
Q
what are the sub systems of STM?
A
none
22
Q
what are the sub systems of LTM?
A
Procedural and declarative memories
23
Q
what is the duration of sensory memory?
A
0.3-4 seconds
24
Q
what is the duration of STM?
A
12-20 seconds
25
what is the duration of LTM?
Relatively permeant
26
what is the capacity of sensory memory?
unlimited
27
what is the capacity of STM?
7+/- 2 items
28
what is the capacity of LTM?
unlimited
29
how are memories lost from sensory memory?
Decay, displacement, not paying attention, filtering
30
how are memories lost from STM?
Displacement or decay
31
how are memories lost from LTM?
Displacement or decay, organic causes, interference
32
which memory is unconscious?
sensory and LTM, not STM
33
why is echoic memory ten times longer than iconic memory?
When we are listening we need the whole sentence in our sensory memory to understand.
This takes a couple of seconds.
When we see something we get the image at once, we don’t need to retain it for long.
34
what is chunking?
We cannot change the 7+/- 2 items in STM.
We can increase the amount in each item.
This is the process of combining small pieces of info into larger groups (chunks).
35
what is rehearsal? what ways can it be done?
Manipulating the information in STM to increase the amount of time it is there (maintenance rehearsal) or aid in storage in LTM (elaborative rehearsal).
It can be vocal (saying things out loud) or sub vocal (saying things silently).
36
what is maintenance rehearsal?
is rote repetition of information to LTM. This does not change or add new meaning to the information. It is an effective way of keeping information in STM.
37
what is elaborative rehearsal?
is the most effective way of transferring info to LTM. It involves linking and organising information with existing information already in storage in a meaningful way. The deeper the level it is encoded, the better it is when remembered. It is more effective in transferring info from STM to LTM.
38
why is working memory a better term than STM?
A better term for STM as it shows that processing and use of info that occurs there.
It allows us to actively work on and manipulate information while we carry out everyday life.
Information from sensory memory is processed in working memory and information is retrieved from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory.
39
what are all the subsets of long term memory?
Procedural (implicit memories—memory without awareness).
Declarative (explicit memories—memory with awareness).
-episodic memories
-Semantic memories
40
what are explicit memories? what can these involve?
When information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.
Can involve words, concepts, images etc.
Declarative LTM are a type of explicit memory because we are aware of their retrieval.
The most common tests involve recall and recognition.
41
what are implicit memories? what might they be?
don’t have intentional retrieval.
You are not aware you are remembering not are you trying to remember or aware that you did so.
It is effortlessly.
42
what is declarative memory? is it explicit or implicit? what are the two types?
Knowledge and facts that can be stated or declared.
It is explicit because it is intentional retrieval.
episodic and semantic memory
43
what is episodic memory?
(subset of declarative). autobiographical memories such as personal experiences and facts. Information includes context (time and place) and state (psychological and physiological condition) the person was in at the time.
44
what are semantic memory?
(subset of declarative). General facts. Do not include time, context or state of the person when learning the information.
45
what is procedural memory? implicit or explicit?
Memory for actions or skills.
Has ‘knowing how to’ information.
Implicit because they can be retrieved through performance rather than conscious recall.
Can be automatic and may be difficult to consciously put into words how to do something.
46
how is LTM compared to STM in terms of activeness?
LTM: Information is inactive- we are not consciously aware of it unless we retrieve it.
STM: Active- consciously aware of it and able to manipulate it.
47
how is LTM stored compared to STM?
LTM: Is organised in a way that enables efficient retrieval of information because there is so much info stored here. Retrieval cues are used.
STM: Stored in physical qualities.
48
why does forgetting sometimes happen in LTM?
Forgetting is due to not being able to retrieve information.
49
how is information in LTM stored?
Stored semantically- in terms of meaning.
50
are STM and LTM separate storage systems?
Most agree they are separate.
| Evidence to support the multi-store model comes from the Serial position effect.
51
what is the serial position effect?
a pattern of results found from free recalling a list of words, names and numbers. The pattern shows that there is better recall for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end (recency effect) of a list.
52
what is the primacy effect?
is the better recall of items at the beginning of a list. This is because they have been reversed in STM and transferred to LTM.
53
what is the recency effect?
is the better recall of items at the end of a list. This is because they are still being rehearsed in STM when the person is asked to free recall.
54
why are words forgotten in the middle of a list? what does this prove?
Often unconsciously ignored as items at the beginning are being rehearsed and transferred to LTM.
There is not enough capacity in STM for the middle items.
They are forgotten or lost.
The last items are recalled because they are still in STM.
STM and LTM are separate because of this reason.
55
what are the areas associated in formation of LTM?
cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum
56
where are simple memories formed?
may be formed, encoded and stored in specific locations.
57
where are more complex memories formed?
may be clusters of information that are stored throughout the brain and connected by neural pathways.
58
what is the cerebral cortex's role in memory? (2)
- Long term explicit semantic and episodic memories are distributed throughout the cortex.
- Names and facts- frontal lobe and sounds- temporal lobe.
59
what happens if the cerebral cortex is damaged? (4)
- Permanent loss of memory.
- damage to the frontal lobe disrupts retrieval processes and efficiency of memory such as attention and organising and activating information.
- Damage to parietal lobe may impair STM.
- Damage to the temporal lobe can impair explicit memories.
60
what is the hippocampus's role in memory? (3)
- Temporary storage and consolidation of declarative memories.
- Plays an important role in the relationship between emotion and memory.
- Spatial memory, which is an explicit memory for the physical location of objects in space.
61
what does damage to the hippocampus mean? (2)
- Functioning can be disrupted by stress, anxiety, depression, PTSD, brain trauma (head injury etc.), removal of part of the temporal lobe during surgery, for the treatment of epilepsy (called unilateral temporal lobectomy), Alzheimer’s disease, herpes, encephalitis.
- Case of HM who had his hippocampus removed and Clive Wearing who had encephalitis.
62
what is the role of amygdala in memory? (4)
- Associated with fear and pleasure responses.
- Processes and stores memories of emotional events and is also involved in current emotional responses.
- Memory for emotions shown on faces.
- Declarative memory with emotional content.
63
what happens if the amygdala is damaged? (7)
- Seem to depict every other expression than that of fear. Fear doesn’t occur.
- Behavioural and emotional abnormalities.
- autism, phobias, PTSD, anxiety, depression, bipolar.
- Psychopathic behaviour.
- May remember the semantic and episodic details but not the emotional qualities of an event.
- Emotionally arousing events are likely to not be well remembered.
- Difficulty acquiring a conditioned fear response.
64
what is the cerebellum's role in memory? (3)
- Encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories.
- Crucial for the learning of motor skills and execution of everyday voluntary movements.
- Forms and stores implicit memories of simple reflexes acquired through classic conditioning. "
65
what happens if the cerebellum is damaged? (1)
Unable to store long-term memory of simple conditioned reflexes.
66
what are organic causes of forgetting?
damage or brain trauma
67
what is a symptom of brain trauma? and what is it?
amnesia: the loss of memory, either partially or complete, temporarily or permanently
68
what is retrograde amnesia? what is it often caused by?
When memory of events experienced BEFORE the brain damage are lost.
Memory loss may be a few moments, days, weeks or even years.
Usually temporary.
Often caused by a blow to the head.
69
what is anterograde amnesia?
When memory of events AFTER the brain damage are lost.
| Prior memory remain.
70
what is a neurological disease?
This is a disease that is characterised by the progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue.
71
what is dementia? what are symptoms? how does it occur? when?
The general term used to describe the progressive decline in a variety of people’s metal functioning.
The most common symptoms are memory loss, decline in intellectual ability, poor judgement, poor social skills and abnormal emotional reactions.
It occurs in stages. Memory loss is usually first.
Memory loss is persistent not occasional.
It affects everyday functioning.
Not a normal ageing process.
More than 60 diseases or illnesses can cause symptoms of dementia/
72
what is Alzheimer's disease?
Characterised by a gradual, widespread degeneration of neurons particularly in the hippocampus and frontal lobe of the brain.
73
what is the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease?
There is no single diagnostic test.
Post mortem is the only accurate test.
PET and MRI are often used to monitor the extent of the damage
74
what is the cause of Alzheimer's disease?
```
High levels of the protein Amyloid in the brain.
This cannot be broken down and causes two abnormal structures.
Plaques: abnormal clusters of protein fragments occurring between nerve cells which interfere with communication between neurons.
Tangles: abnormal build up of the protein inside the nerve cell which damages internal processing that keep the cell alive resulting in death.
Less acetylcholine (enables formation of memory).
```
75
what are symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
```
Memory loss.
confusion.
Irritability.
Impaired decision making.
They feature predominantly in the later stages of the disease.
```
76
what is treatment for Alzheimer's?
No cure.
| Medications can increase acetylcholine which slows development of symptoms.
77
what does the amount memory recalled depend on?
the question asked
78
what are the four ways of remembering?
recall, recognition, relearning (savings method) and reconstruction
79
what is recall? what are the three types?
Retrieval of information using no or few cues.
There are three types:
Free recall: when no cues are used.
Cued recall: when minimal cues are used.
Serial recall: when information is recalled in order, order acting as cues.
80
what is the sensitivity to retention of recall?
recall is the least sensitive measure of retention. This means it is the method least likely to retrieve information from memory even though it is in memory.
81
what is recognition?
Correctly choosing learning information from a set of alternatives.
(MC)
82
what is relearning? what is another name for it?
Relearning previously learning information then calculating the amount of information retained in memory by subtracting this information from the original learning.
83
how is the savings score calculated?
Original learning - relearned
———————————— x 100
Original learning
84
what is the sensitivity to retention of relearning?
relearning is the most sensitive measure of retention. This means that relearning is the most likely method to find or measure the information in memory.
85
what is reconstruction? when does this happen? what type of process is it? what is it influenced by?
What we retrieve is not what happened at the time of encoding.
We reconstruct memories when we retrieve them.
Where there are unclear gaps we fill them in or add information to make sure it makes sense.
It is an active process.
Influenced by: pre-existing knowledge, personal experiences, values, psychological state, cues in environment, motivations, expectations and assumptions about what we thought happened.
86
what did Barlett and Loftus's Research in Loftus and Eyewitness Testimony investigate? find?
Investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Found that eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories and their testimony is not always accurate.
Often leading questions add to this inaccuracy and reconstruction.
87
what do learning questions do?
Manipulate memory.
Is phrased in a way that suggests what answer is desired.
It manipulates the answer.
88
what was the aim of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?
To see the effect of leading questions on Eye Witness Testimony and how information supplied after an event can distort a witness’s memory of that event.
89
what was the procedure of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?
Lab experiment.
Independent groups design.
45 volunteers from a university.
Watched a film of a car accident.
The five groups were asked a different question.
How fast were the cars going when they_______ each other?
The words were: hit, smashed, collided, bumped, contacted.
90
what was the IV of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?
the verb used: smashed, collided, contacted, hit, bumped.
91
what was the DV of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?
How fast the participants estimated the cars were travelling.
92
what were the results and conclusions of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?
The difference in speed estimates were statistically significant.
Loftus and Palmer suggested the results could be due to the participant’s labels being distorted by the verb used.
Response bias may also have affected the results: they answer according to what they thought was expected.
93
what was the design of the second experiment into eye witness testimony?
Independent measures design.
94
what was the procedure and grouping of the second experiment?
Three groups of students after watching the film answered the questions:
first group: how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Second group: smashed.
Control group: not asked about speed.
A week later they were asked: did you see any broken glass?
95
what were the results of the second experiment?
```
Statistically significant.
Smashed: 41m/h.
Hit: 34m/h.
Although there was no broken glass…
Smashed: 32% saw it.
Hit: 14%.
Control group: 12%.
```
96
what were the conclusions of the second experiment?
The words had different connotations in terms of speed and force.
Smashed implies broken glass.
They participants unconsciously incorporated these connotations into their memory of the event and their judgement of the speed and memory of the scene was affected.
Over time the memory of the car accident integrated with the connotations from the leading questions to reconstruct the memory and form a new, distorted memory.
Participants were unaware that their memory of the accident has come from more than one source.
This is called source confusion.
97
how are the Loftus and Palmer experiments evaluated? limitations?
Limitations: lacks ecological validity (not real life), demand characteristics, ethics (some may have found it distressing), participants were students and may not have been representative, used close ended questions, how well can they estimate speed?
98
how do we enhance memory?
Retrieval cues are any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory.
99
what are context dependent cues? how do they help information be retrieved?
Environmental cues in the specific situation (context) where a memory was formed.
Help access memories formed in that context.
Information is more readily recalled in a similar context to where you first learned it.
This occurs because cues in the context or setting are linked with the newly learned information and act as prompts.
100
what are state dependent cues?
Are associated with an individual’s internal physiological and or psychological state at the time a memory was formed.
The state acts as retrieval cues.
This occurs because cues in the mental or physical state are linked with the newly learned information and act as prompts when recalling information.
