mental health Flashcards

Question

disadvantages of the deviation of social norms definition for abnormality?

Answer 1

Cultural relativism - of course this definition is hugely dependent on culture. What is normal in one culture isn't normal in another. This can influence how we judge and define abnormality. What is deemed normal and acceptable by society changes so much over time - e.g. homosexuality was classed as a mental illness until 1973. This means this definition lacks reliability and validity - how can something be normal one year and not the next? (and vice versa) Different subcultures may have their own set of norms which aren't reflected by wider society. Sometimes breaking away from norms of society can be a positive thing e.g. freedom fighters and activists. Many people actually break social norms at some point e.g. committing minor criminal offences and it is unlikely in the majority of cases that this is due to a psychological disorder. Social control - A diagnosis of insanity in Russia has been used to detain political dissidents and in Japan it has been used to ensure a strong work ethic. Szasz argues that abnormality is a socially constructed concept that allows people who are unusual to be labelled and thus treated differently from the others - often confined and persecuted. In the 19th century women were frequently diagnosed with moral insanity. This was diagnosed when women who inherited money spent it on themselves rather than on male relatives. By being able to get women diagnosed with moral insanity (with the cooperation of male doctors) men were able to strictly control women in line with their own interests.

Answer 2

a Chippewa boy who saw visions of thunderbirds whilst at school. Western society sees visions as symptoms of schizophrenia whereas in the boy’s own culture, the visions are seen as a great honour in one pacific island society, social life is governed by hostility and suspicion. gifts of food are assumed to be poisoned, and a poor crop is attributed to theft by magic of nutrients from the soul. Anyone who is friendly is considered crazy In some countries, people eat insects, practice sorcery and encourage sex play among children. Whilst these behaviours seem abnormal to us, many people in the world view American behaviours as abnormal, eg birth control, having one spouse and bottle-feeding infants

Answer 3

This definition of 'dysfunctional behaviour defines whether or not a behavior is 'dysfunctional’ if it is counter-productive to the individual. If a person is not functioning in a way that enables them to live independently in society then they are potentially failing to function adequately. * The main problem with this definition however is that psychologists cannot agree on the boundaries that define what is functioning and what is 'adequate. * Behaviours that prevent people from coping with the demands of everyday life such as the ability to work or the motivation to care for themselves properly are considered dysfunctional. * There are several reasons why a person may not be functioning well. These might be: 1. Dysfunctional behaviour - is the behaviour maladaptive? 2. Personal Distress - is the individual experiencing the behaviour distressed? 3. Observer discomfort - are other people affected by the behaviour? 4.Unpredictable behaviour - is the behaviour unexpected in that situation? 5. Irrational behaviour - does the behaviour make sense in that situation?

Answer 4

gives us a definition which takes into account how other people feel, eg observer discomfort this is useful as sometimes the individual with the disorder does not feel distress themselves but those around them do

Answer 5

it is subjective -- people may disagree on what it means to function adequately many normal people fail to function adequately during their lives, perhaps in particularly stressful situations there may be cultural issues-- what is adequate functioning may differ between cultures

Answer 6

this definition defines dysfunctional behaviour by determining if the behaviour the individual is displaying is affecting their mental wellbeing as with the failure to function definition, the boundaries that stipulate what ideal mental health is are not properly defined, and the bigger problem with the definition is that all individuals will, at some point in there life, deviate from ideal mental health, but it does not mean they are dysfunctional

Answer 7

a positive attitude towards oneself the opportunity to self actualise the ability to resist stress autonomy; being independent and self regulating an accurate perception of reality the ability to adapt to one's environment

Answer 8

it is the only definition which attempts to define normal or what is ideal, which we need to no in order to identify what is not normal

Answer 9

what is called as ideal is very subjective the criteria suggested by Jahoda are quite demanding, so there would be quite a lot of people who would not achieve them, which means you would identify a lot of people are abnormal and this totally contradicts statistical infrequency there is an issue of culture -- these are potentially ethnocentric as the ideals might fit with individualistic countries and not collectivist ones

Answer 10

the diagnosis of mental disorders follows the same process as when assessing physical illness -- identify symptoms (both medical and non-medical) in order to help you identify the sort of illness a person has and begin treatment

Answer 11

the DSM V and the ICD

Answer 12

both the ICD and the DSM comprise of a list of all recognised mental health conditions with symptoms which indicate a particular disorder

Answer 13

they do not offer explanations for disorders or suggestions for treatments

Answer 14

by having a list of symptoms used by all professionals, the reliability of diagnosis should be improved

Answer 15

the American Psychiatric Association

Answer 16

currently on its 5th edition (DSMV) a manual and categorisation tool used by medical professionals to diagnose mental disorders contains descriptions, symptoms and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders provides a common language for medical professionals to communicate to their patients and also ensure consistency in research establishes consistent and reliable diagnoses

Answer 17

the latest version was released in 2018 devised by the WHO often used alongside the DSM a globally used diagnostic tool for both physical and mental health also used for morbidity and mortality statistics used by more than 100 countries around the world has 22 chapters but only chapter 5 is about mental disorders

Answer 18

was initially very focused on the psychodynamic perspective the term 'reaction' for disorders was dropped in the DSM II (1968) DSM III attempted to be neutral with respect to causes of mental health

Answer 19

standardises the diagnosing of mental disorders across different treatment providers can guide mental health professionals in providing treatments, give people access to other support and services eg benefits can help aid research should be a valid tool for diagnosing mental illness

Answer 20

diagnostic tools can oversimplify complex behaviour there is an argument that manuals are reductionist

Answer 21

there is a concern that the threshold for diagnosis has lowered too much and could result in people being diagnosed when they do not have a disorder eg previous DSMs required 3/6 symptoms to be present for at least 3 months for a diagnosis of Generalised Anxiety Disorder. in DSMV, only 1 / 4 symptoms are required to be present for at least one month

Answer 22

krimsky and cosgrove (2012) found 69% of the people on the panel to approve the DSM-5 had links with pharmaceutical companies which could have biased their judgement

Answer 23

these tools offer a starting point -- they don't indicate what caused the disorder, and doesn't suggest a treatment some people argue that by categorising disorders you create a label - and maybe this could be harmful to people

Answer 24

Ford and Widiger tested clinicians and found a gender bias. men more likely than women to be diagnosed with anti social personality disorder, whilst women were more likely to be diagnosed with Histrionic Personality Disorder stereotyping-- the symptoms listed sound specific to one gender sometimes. That is why it is important they get updated. eg amenorrhea (not having period) was removed as a symptom of anorexia nervosa

Answer 25

practitioners have questioned the reliability of the DSM Spitzer and Fleiss (1974) found the reliability of diagnosing is poor. they used something called Kappa - this is a measure of agreement between 2 clinicians diagnosing the same patient. the measure ranges between -1 and 1, with 1 being perfect agreement between 2 clinicians these researchers found a Kappa agreement mean of 0.52 - concluding no category of mental disorder has consistently high reliability when it comes to diagnosing patients

Answer 26

symptoms are developed from a Western perspective which may be an issue behaviours which are considered abnormal in one culture may be considered normal or even desirable in another

Answer 27

perhaps by giving a certain behaviour a name you are making it seem like that person is different categorisation could be socially sensitive as labelling could lead to stigmatisation

Answer 28

some pervious disorders no longer exist due to changing norms what is classified as a disorder changes over time, so those categorised with disorders now may not be in the future

Answer 29

wanted to see if it was possible to tell the difference between sanity and insanity in a person, and whether hospitals really could tell the difference between someone who is sane and someone who is insane

Answer 30

8 pseudopatients rang the admissions office of 12 psychiatric hospitals over 5 states in America. the hospitals were a mix of old and new facilities, had a range of staffing levels, and one was a private hospital relying on patients' fees for their funds each pseudopatient would call one of the hospitals and say they were hearing voices. they said they could hear the words 'empty' 'hollow' and 'thud' they said they were not familiar with the voice and that the voice was of the same sex as them they gave false names, addresses and jobs, but everything else was the truth once they were admitted they acted normally, with no mention of symptoms again. they did everything they were asked eg going to dinner, but they did not swallow any medication the pseudopatients kept notes of everything that had happened on the ward they were only able to leave if they were discharged

Answer 31

the people in the hospital, NOT the pseudopatients data was collected on other patients and medical staff only in one hospital did the hospital administrator and chief psychologist know what Rosenhan (himself as the pseudopatient) was doing

Answer 32

there were 12 possible admissions (as 12 hospitals were tested) 11 of these admissions were for schizophrenia, the other was for bipolar disorder the pseudopatients were never detected by the staff as being fake the time the pseudopatients spent in the hospital ranged from 7 to 52 days. the average stay was 19 days they were discharged as schizophrenic in remission

Answer 33

in 3 hospitals, 35 out of 118 patients voiced their suspicions about the insanity of the pseudopatients, saying things like 'UR not crazy' 'ur a journalist, or a professor' 'ur checking up on the hospital'

Answer 34

a group of patients sitting outside the entrance to the dining room half an hour before lunchtime were labelled as 'oral acquisitive behaviour' when they were actually just there because it was something to do

Answer 35

making notes on the behaviour of the medical staff and patients was seen as an aspect of their pathological behaviour continuous writing was thought to have been a behavioural manifestation of their disorder

Answer 36

there could be a bias towards calling a healthy person sick (a false positive, type 2 error) it is argued that it is safer to call a healthy person sick, than a sick person healthy, as then that person would fail to get the treatment they needed calling a sick person healthy is a false negative, type 1 error

Answer 37

staff at a research and teaching hospital doubted Rosenhan's findings and were certain they would identify pseudopatients, so Rosenhan tested this the staff of the hospital were falsely informed that during the next 3 months, 1 or more pseudopatients would attempt to be admitted into their hospital staff members were asked to rate on a scale of 1 - 10 (1 = high confidence) each patient, as to the likelihood of them being a pseudopatient

Answer 38

during the 3 month period, 193 patients were admitted at least one member of staff rated 41 patients as highly confident they were a pseudo patient 23 were rated highly confident they were a pseudo patient by at least one psychiatirist 19 were rated highly confident that they were a pseudo patient by a psychiatrist plus one other member of staff NONE of them were pseudo patients, they were all genuine patients

Answer 39

it is just as easy to judge a sick person as healthy and make a type 1 error perhaps this was because the staff at the hospital were told there would be pseudo patients so were biased towards identifying them it does suggest that massive errors can be made in diagnosis - the big question is why?

Answer 40

staff and patients were segregated, with pseudos spending time in the ward and the dayroom. staff tended to only come out to administer medication or therapy, to attend a patient conference or to instruct or reprimand a patient rosenhan said it was if 'the disorder that afflicts their charges is somehow catching' - they avoided their patients like they were contagious average amount of time spent by attendants outside of the work room was 11.3% of their shift it was rare to see a staff member talking with patients or playing games with them the average time nurses spent outside the work room was so small it was deemed immeasurable the number of times they left the work room was 11.5 times per shift, in night shifts this reduced to 9.4 times the range was 4 - 41 times, suggesting some staff were much more likely to leave the work room than others doctors and psychiatrists were seen even less often, they left their office on average 6.7 times per day

Answer 41

this is when your behaviour is viewed and interpreted differently due to being labelled, the diagnoses that were made were not based on the patients 'normal' backgrounds, but their case histories were interpreted based on the label they had been given

Answer 42

patients often powerless to influence the interactions with medical staff, and could be punished verbally and physically by staff, although this stopped when other staff (not other patients) came into the room a real patient was beaten bc he approached an attendant and told him 'i like you' patients had lost many legal rights, they could not initiate contact with staff, and staff ignored them if they did try to talk to them, often just walking straight past no privacy, either in the patient's possessions or case notes, which could be seen by anyone patient was often monitored during bath and toilet times, sometimes there were no doors on toilets. physical examinations took place in semi public place with other staff members there, and staff would point to patients + discuss them as if they were not there

Answer 43

main concern was the lack of time patients spent with their medical staff. the average daily contact with psychiatrists, psychologists and doctors combined ranged from 3.9-25.1 minutes, with overall mean of 6.8 minutes. This was over a total of 129 days that the pseudo patients were in hospital staff did not care if medication was taken or not, the pseudopatients flushed theirs down the toilet, often finding other patient's medication in there as well

Answer 44

in exp 1, the pseudopatients made comparisons of how the staff responded to patients which Rosenhan then compared with responses of other people to some individuals who had not been diagnosed with a psychiatric illness in 4 hospitals a pseudopatient approached a staff member with a request such as 'Pardon me, Mr/Mrs/Dr X, could you tell me when I am likely to be discharged?' data was also collected from stanford university; a young lady would approach a faculty member and ask them for assistance they also collected data from a university medical centre

Answer 45

out of the hospital and on the uni campus, all questions were answered, with nobody moving on without stopping in psychiatric hospitals, only 6% of psychiatrists and 2.5% of nurses and attendants stopped or paused to talk in medical centre, more people stopped, at least pausing, except for when the person said after the first question that she was looking for a psychiatrist - even the hint of mental illness is enough to reduce the amount of personal contact

Answer 46

this research appears to show that we cannot distinguish sanity from insanity, and it is worrying how this type of label, even if it is wrongly applied, can be used people can be needlessly stripped of their rights, eg the right to vote or handle their own bank accounts. the stigma attached to labels of mental illness can stick to people and affect their lives forever. finally patients might be sane outside of the psychiatric hospital but seem insane inside due to the bizarre setting they are responding to

Answer 47

as we cannot judge the same from the insane, it makes sense not to admit people to hospital with labels that will stick to them but to have community based therapy where they are treated as humans without a label, with therapy for specific behaviours rather than just a named disorder the hospital environment only magnifies the distortion in the behaviour of others towards the patients the staff in the hospitals were not malicious or stupid, but just reacted as directed by the hospital environment. There needs to be some increase in the understanding and sensitivity of mental health workers towards the psychiatric patients. this may be achieved by education or experiencing impact of hospitalisation must be noted that the experience of pseudopatients may be nothing like that of nothing of true patients the research was carried out in the 1970s so may lack validity as (we hope) the situation in mental health facilities would be very different today

Answer 48

disorders characterised by disordered mood eg depression

Answer 49

severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and perceptions. people with psychoses lose touch with reality eg schizophrenia

Answer 50

a group of mental disorders characterised by feelings of anxiety and fear eg phobias

Answer 51

relates to mood and mean that the disorder prevents the individual from leading a normal life. They include disorders such as depression, where an individual may feel intense feelings of despair, and bipolar disorder, where a person will have severe mood swings

Answer 52

5+ symptoms present during the same 2 week period, including either symptom 1 or 2 from: 1) depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day 2) diminished interest/pleasure in all or almost all activities, most of the day, nearly every day - weight loss of more than 5% not due to diet - insomnia / excessive sleep nearly every day - restlessness / less activity nearly everyday - fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day - feelings of worthlessness/ excessive guilt nearly every day

Answer 53

patient must show at least 2 of the 3 most 'typical' symptoms plus at least 3 of the 'other' symptoms typical: depressed mood, loss of interest/enjoyment, increased fatigue other: reduced concentration, reduced self esteem, disturbed sleep, diminished appetite

Answer 54

characterised by major disturbances of thought, emotion and behaviour psychotic disorders generally relate to a loss of touch with reality which often leads to withdrawal from the outside world, confusion and disorientation schizophrenia is probably the most well-known of this type of disorder

Answer 55

2+ symptoms in one month, at least one must be symptom 1,2 or 3: 1) delusions 2) hallucinations 3) disorganised speech 4) disorganised/ catatonic behaviour (unresponsive) 5) negative symptoms (lacking something) such as diminished facial expression symptoms should persist for 6 months and not be a result of other causes such as substances

Answer 56

minimum of 1 very clear symptom/ 2 or more less clear cut symptoms from a) to d) OR at least 2 from e) to h). symptoms should be clearly present for most of the time for 1+ months a) thought echo b) delusions of control c) hallucinatory voices d) persistent delusions e) persistent hallucinations f) breaks in train of thought g) catatonic behaviour h) negative symptoms eg apathy

Answer 57

general feeling of anxiety accompanied by physiological symptoms such as increased heart rate and sweating these are neurotic disorders and include disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder, phobias, PTSD, and generalised anxiety disorder anxiety disorders have in common symptoms of ty and avoidance behaviour that causes clinically significant distress or impairment of function. The specific emotions experienced are fear and or anxiety, which are characterised by: - physiological symptoms such as racing heart and disturbed breathing - behavioural discomfort and nervous gesturing - cognitive distraction - pre occupied with unwanted thoughts

Answer 58

marked fear or anxiety about two or more of these situations: -using public transport - being in open spaces -being in enclosed spaces - standing in a line/crowd -being outside of the home alone situations almost always provoke an anxiety attack and situations are avoided/ require a companion fear is out of proportion to danger fear persists for 6 months and causes impairment of normal functioning there are no other disorders / causes

Answer 59

all of the following should be fulfilled for a definite diagnosis the symptoms should not be secondary to other symptoms such as delusions or obsessive thoughts - anxiety must be restricted to at least 2 of: * crowds * public places * travelling away from home * travelling alone avoidance of the phonic situation must be a prominent feature

Answer 60

biochemical genetic brain abnormality

Answer 61

behaviourist cognitive psychodynamic

Answer 62

the medical models assume abnormal behaviour is a result of physical problems and should be treated medically / physiologically

Answer 63

assumed mental disorders have a physical cause and are a result of an imbalance in chemicals

Answer 64

the nerve cells of the brain use neurotransmitters which are chemical messengers neurotransmitters are used by the nervous system to regulate many functions and processes in our bodies such as sleeping and metabolism the messages the nerve cells send through synapses also play a role in mood regulation

Answer 65

neurons transfer info to each other via synapses. this is a connection that allows one cell (pre-synaptic cell) to pass chemicals to another cell (post-synaptic cell) the chemicals passing across the synaptic cleft/ gap are called neurotransmitters chemicals cross this synapse and transmit an electrical signal. Once the post-synaptic cell has received chemical, it is taken back to the first pre-synaptic cell (called the REUPTAKE)

Answer 66

serotonin is a neurotransmitter linked to mood, sleeping and eating low serotonin is a chemical imbalance which has been linked to depression SSRIs are drugs which block the reuptake so that serotonin reaches the post-synaptic cell and stays in the system longer

Answer 67

in their study, the Duke researchers used a transgenic mouse strain (Tph2K1), bred to have only 20-40% of normal serotonin levels the mice were exposed to stress by briefly housing them with an aggressive stranger mouse every day for 7-10 days. to test for depression-like behaviours, the researchers then examined whether the test mice would avoid interacting with stranger mouse. The control mice did not exhibit these depression symptoms after a week of social stress, but the serotonin-deficient mice did. both groups eventually displayed depression like symptoms following longer periods of stress exposure the mice with depression like symptoms were treated with Prozac (an SSRI) for 3 weeks. Normal mice saw reduced depression symptoms following treatment, but the Tph2KI mice did not.

Answer 68

dopamine is a neurotransmitter linked to memory, reward and motivation drugs can increase dopamine, so drug users can show symptoms of psychotic disorders Dopamine Receptor Blockers block post-synaptic cells from receiving the dopamine to reduce psychotic symptoms

Answer 69

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Answer 70

SSRIs block the reuptake process and therefore prevent the serotonin from being reabsorbed into the pre synaptic cell this means that more serotonin is available in the synaptic gap to pass further messages between nearby cells and stimulate the post synaptic cell SSRIs therefore alter the balance of serotonin levels in the brain

Answer 71

Cipriano et al. (2018) reviewed research comprising over 522 trials and used over 116000 participants all studies had looked for data 8 weeks into taking anti depressants or a placebo the research found that all 21 types of anti depressants were more effective at treating depressive symptoms in adults compared to the placebo pill the research did find that some anti depressants were more effective than others

Answer 72

effectiveness demonstrated through Cipriani’s study can be cheaper than therapy

Answer 73

dependence/addiction side effects linked to rise in suicidal thoughts not immediate expensive individual differences is it tackling the cause?

Answer 74

it assumes disorders are a result of genes as a result, disorders and the genes that cause them can be passed down parent to child and can be shared by siblings

Answer 75

when a behaviour or characteristic is passed down from a parent to child. It is possible for 1 child to show a tendency or a disorder when another doesn’t

Answer 76

identical twins, same generic makeup come from one shared egg, sharing 100% of genes

Answer 77

twins who are not identical 2 eggs, sharing up to 50% of genes

Answer 78

identical twins share 100% of their DNA. If traits are a result of genes, it would be expected that they would share these traits in other words, if a trait is genetic it should affect both twins. to measure this, concordance rates are used. if something is concordant, it means that it is present in both twins

Answer 79

to investigate the probability of a child being diagnosed with a mental disorder. they did this by comparing when both parents have a disorder, one parent had a disorder or neither parent has a disorder

Answer 80

more than 2.7 million people from Denmark criteria = they had to have a registered link to their biological parents also had to be born during or after 1968 and had to be aged 10+ on Jan 2007

Answer 81

people with a clear link to their parents were taken from the Danish Civil Registraion system. researchers then used data from Psychotic Central Register to identify people with schizophrenia, bipolar or unipolar disorder statistics were in the public domain and anonymous so no consent was needed

Answer 82

27.3% had schizophrenia 24.9% had bipolar

Answer 83

7% had schizophrenia 4.4% had bipolar

Answer 84

0.86% had schizophrenia 0.48% had bipolar

Answer 85

1.2% had schizophrenia 0.63% had bipolar

Answer 86

the risk of schizophrenia was 31.7x higher when 2 parents had a diagnosis compared to neither parent risk of bipolar was 51.9x higher when 2 parents had diagnosis compared to neither parent suggests mental disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar are genetic

Answer 87

could predict disorders and give guidance on marriage/adoption (is this ethical?)

Answer 88

concordance rate isn’t 100% so no guarantee a child will develop the disorder gottesman lacks validity as it only counts those admitted to the hospital reductionist

Answer 89

assumes mental disorders have a physical cause and are a result of abnormal brain structures

Answer 90

brain scans such as PET scans post-mortems

Answer 91

Position Emission Tomography (PET) scans show which parts of the brain are active rather than just showing structure blue = less active red = more active

Answer 92

1986 studied the brains of 41 participants with schizophrenia and 29 with an affective disorder the brains of those with schizophrenia were 6% lighter than those with an affective disorder. they also had larger ventricles disadvantage of the study was there is no control group to compare to

Answer 93

compared identical twins where one had a diagnosis of schizophrenia MRI scans were used to compare the structures of the brains of 9 pairs of twins a difference was found in the volume of the hippocampi and activity in the prefrontal cortex

Answer 94

1999 studied 24 parents with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder they found the amygdala was enlarged in those with a diagnosis of bipolar the Amygdala is a region linked to memory, decision making and emotional responses there were also differences in the prefrontal and hippocampal regions

Answer 95

compared hippocampi in elderly women the hippocampus was smaller in those with depression than other women of the same age Cortisol, a stress hormone, can destroy hippocampal cells. These cells usually respond to Serotonin.

Answer 96

measured activity before and after treatment in regions of the brain for participants with OCD changes in behaviour correlated with reduced activity in the right caudate nucleus which is linked to control and reward activity in these areas reduced with both drug and behavioural theory

Answer 97

scientific technology to identify abnormalities = objective could help identify treatments alleviates blame for individual

Answer 98

reductionist hard to narrow down the exact area of the brain people may have abnormalities without showing symptoms

Answer 99

dysfunctional behaviour is learnt in the same way as any other behaviour through the processes of classical and operant conditioning and social learning therefore suggests that mental illness is a result of nurture

Answer 100

assumes disorders are learnt through a process of observation and imitation if a child has witnessed someone reacting to a challenge in an unhealthy, maladaptive or irrational way, they may learn it and adopt those behaviours

Answer 101

assumes disorders are learnt though positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment phobias may be learnt though negative reinforcement avoidance will act as negative reinforcement. the removal of unpleasant symptoms leads the individual to repeat the avoidance behaviour

Answer 102

assumes disorders are learnt through association if someone with agoraphobia had an embarrassing experience in a public place, they may associate that feeling with being in a public place

Answer 103

to see if it is possible to induce a fear of a previously un-feared object, through classical conditioning to see if the fear will be transferred to other similar objects to see what effect time will have on fear response to see how possible it is to remove the fear response in the laboratory

Answer 104

a case study undertaken on one little boy, Little Albert. It was conducted in controlled lab conditions

Answer 105

little albert was the child of a wet nurse, and so lived in a hospital environment. he was described as stolid and emotional

Answer 106

when his baseline reactions were assessed before the controlled experiments began, Albert had no fear reactions to a rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, a mask with hair or cotton wooo Watson and rayner noted that ‘not the slightest sign of a fear response was obtained in any situation’ after repeated pairing with a loud noise, the fear brought about by the loud noise was enough to result in a phobia of the rat. this fear then spread to other objects like a Father Christmas beard

Answer 107

phobias could be learnt through classical conditioning

Answer 108

explains disorders that biology can’t eg phobias an alternative to genetics for explaining why family members may share disorders

Answer 109

reductionist deterministic, implies we have no choice in how we behave individual differences, some people develop disorders without negative experiences

Answer 110

based on the principles of classical conditioning the aim is to expose the individual to their most feared situation initial fear reaction will subside through exhaustion and the individual will feel calmer this builds an association between the calm feeling and the original phobic stimuli

Answer 111

some types of specific phobia, for example, fear of heights

Answer 112

based on principles of Classical Conditioning the aim is to create an association between an unwanted behaviour and an unpleasant stimuli eg electric shocks for example, emetics which react to alcohol may be given as part of rehabilitation

Answer 113

deliberate pain and discomfort inflicted. most notoriously used in the past to try to change sexuality of homosexuals and transvestites

Answer 114

based on the principles of Operant Conditioning tokens are given for desirable behaviours and they can be saved up for a reward used in prisons eg tokens for being helpful to staff or showing commitment to rehabilitation can be used to purchase a TV in their cell or the ability to wear their own clothes.

Answer 115

used to shape behaviour of patients in mental hospitals

Answer 116

successful in socialising disturbed patients can break down outside institutional setting

Answer 117

based on classical conditioning reaches the patient to associate a relaxed response to the fear stimulus instead of a fearful response according to this strategy, two emotional states cannot exist at the same time so the relaxation should take over the fear

Answer 118

patient and therapist make a fear hierarchy where they rank the patients fears from least to most feared patient is taught relaxation techniques at each stage such as breathing techniques and muscle relaxation once the patient feels comfortable ke with each stage, they move on to the next until desensitisation has become successful

Answer 119

used systematic desensitisation on a 10 year old called Lucy, who had a fear of loud noises before treatment she rates her fear for balloons to be 7/10 and party poppers to be 9/10 she created a hierarchy of fears and worked through them over a 10 week period. her relaxation technique was to imagine she was playing with her toys at home after the 10 weeks, her self rating for fear of balloons was 3/10 and for part poppers was 3/10

Answer 120

evidence shows behaviourism is effective more ethical for use with children no side effects no dependency

Answer 121

takes time to see results flooding may be unethical reductionist — may only change behaviour and not underlying thoughts difficult if the patient is unwilling or unmotivated

Answer 122

assumes mental disorders are a result of faulty thought process cognitive biases and negative self schemes may impact our mental health

Answer 123

beck created the negative cognitive triad as a model of identifying the 3 main thoughts someone with depression may have people with depression may have irrational cognitions about themselves and the world around them THE SELF — the individual believes that they are worthless or have negative self concepts, eg they are unattractive or not likeable THE FUTURE — the individual thinks the future is going to be negative, eg they might think they will never find the right partner or job THE WORLD — the individual thinks everything is negative around them, such as people and situations

Answer 124

some people with depression or anxiety may set high and sometimes unrealistic goals the individual may feel like a failure if they cannot achieve these goals, eg ‘I must achieve all A*s’

Answer 125

cognitive behavioural therapy is a talking therapy which aims to change the ‘faulty’ thought processes in the present (the therapy isn’t concerned with a patient’s past the therapy teaches patients how to identify distorted cognitions to help them distinguish between their own thoughts and reality

Answer 126

a review conducted by Hofmann (2012) found that some studies had shown CBT was as effective as medication for treating depression the research also found that CBT can provide immediate reduction of the symptoms of some anxiety disorders

Answer 127

drawing negative conclusions off the back of insufficient evidence eg ‘My partner must be cheating on me as they haven’t replied to my text’

Answer 128

focusing on negative details or events whilst ignoring the positive ones eg ‘I had a terrible day. I got soaked on my way to college, then realised I left my phone at home’

Answer 129

drawing sweeping conclusions based on a single incident eg ‘I waved at my friend friend from the other side of the road. They ignored at me so they must be mad at me.’

Answer 130

exaggerating a minor setback until it becomes a complete disaster eg ‘I might fail this test. Then I’ll never pass my A LEVELS. Then I’ll never get a good job.

Answer 131

seeing everything in terms of success or failure— nothing in between eg ‘I’m a terrible person but my friend isn’t.’

Answer 132

evidence that CBT is effective deterministic

Answer 133

reductionist you have to fully engage with therapy for it to be effective

Answer 134

assumes mental disorders are a result of inner conflicts of the mind and repressed childhood experiences

Answer 135

refusing to accept something traumatic has happened can lead to anxiety and depression if it is not self with at the time

Answer 136

moving your feelings about one thing onto another. eg Hans displaced his father onto horses, leading to his fear of horses

Answer 137

suppressing a thought so it remains in the unconscious can result in phobia and other disorders eg Little Hans repressing his love for his mother led to a phobia of horses

Answer 138

if the Ego gives into the Id then we may feel guilt from the Superego this may lead an individual to feeling anxious or depressed

Answer 139

a weak Ego which can’t control the Id may lead to a loss of contact with reality we could return to a child like state where imagination and reality become one distorted view of life.

Answer 140

a talking therapy involves getting patients to talk out loud about a given topic words are given for the patient to react to and these reactions are explored further

Answer 141

a talking therapy looks at the content of an individual’s dreams and interprets them as representations of real desires and the unconscious the manifest content is the actual content of your dream, whilst the latent content is the meaning behind it.

Answer 142

more holistic than other explanations explains adult behaviour as a result of childhood experiences somewhat deterministic and therefore behaviour is predictable

Answer 143

not scientific and therefore not falsifiable subjective not easy to access a patient’s unconscious does not work for all disorders

Answer 144

raises awareness of labelling people with mental illness exposes politicisation and medication of psychiatry encourages treating voluntary patients only - useful for giving patients more choice raises awareness that medication may have only suppress symptoms - highlights alternative treatments calls for better defining of mental illness raises awareness of over diagnosing and lowering of thresholds

Answer 145

none of his points are supported by scientific evidence socially sensitive - creates negative views of psychiatry and psychiatry could be szasz be encouraging loss of trust in political power? evidence suggests medical treatment can be effective. Trying to help patients understand themselves may not be enough to help them

Answer 146

Szasz's criticisms of using the medical model to explain and treat mental illness mental illness is down to the judgement of others political power and social control the responsibility and freedom of individuals

Answer 147

if there is a physical cause, it is a physical illness and should be treated as a PHYSICAL illness. if there is no physical cause, it is not an illness

Answer 148

could be argued that treating disturbances as medical events can lead to individuals being subject to state control eg sectioned behaviours simply not approved of or understood by majority can be labelled as an illness when they are nothing more than a bit different from the norm

Answer 149

good think that disturbances have been medicalised as those experiencing them can feel reassured that their experience is not completely unusual predictability of disorders can lead to treatment

Answer 150

mental illness is a subjective concept determined by the judgement of a few people

Answer 151

judgements can vary over time or between cultures therefore could be seen as a social culture APA + WHO judge mental health and these manuals are constantly changing mental illness can be seen as a subjective concept, especially if it cannot be measured

Answer 152

socially sensitive acknowledgement of mental illness can lead to access to further support there are examples of disturbances in mental health which would elicit concern in any location at any time people could lose trust in the mental health sector

Answer 153

creation of new labels of mental health conditions is in the pharmaceutical industry's financial interest which contributes to government money labels can lead to social control causing patients not being able to make their own decisions

Answer 154

individuals suffering with mental health issues feel understood by people in power

Answer 155

freedom is a basic human right encourages treating voluntary patients only-- useful for patients who do want more freedom and choice

Answer 156

sectioning can be in best interest if they are a danger to themselves or others some individuals do not have the mental capacity to make appropriate decisions about the treatments they should receive