criminal psychology

Question 1

what did Brunner do in 1993?

Answer 1

published a research paper about the association between genes and aggressive behaviour

Question 2

what did Brunner say about genes and aggressive behaviour?

Answer 2

he emphasised that there was no one gene for crime, and had suggested an association rather than a cause between genes and aggressive behaviour

the MAOA gene was said to be related to aggressive and violent criminal behaviour

Question 3

what is MAOA?

Answer 3

the function of MAOA is to breakdown/metabolise excess serotonin in the brain, thus helping to control the levels of serotonin available for take up by the brain

Question 4

what was brunner’s study?

Answer 4

brunner was a doctor in a Netherlands’ hospital and was approached by a woman for genetic counselling

there were a number of males in her family that suffered a syndrome of mental-retardation that was associated with aggressive antisocial and violently criminal behaviour

further research found 14 males in the woman’s extended family had a genetic mutation. This was a mutation of the X chromosome which had passed along the maternal line

Brunner discovered it was a mutation of this gene that stopped them producing any MAOA. This is now known as Brunner syndrome and only this family is known to be affected

a case study found the lack of MAOA increased their serotonin levels which is therefore associated with aggressive behaviour

some of the criminal activity the males had engaged in from this case study include attempted rape, exhibitionism, arson and assault

Question 5

what was lombroso’s theory of atavism 1876?

Answer 5

argued that criminal is a sub species of human

argued that the physical shape of the head and face determined the ‘born criminal’

features also included a heavy jutting jaw, low brow, a flattened nose, protruding ears, extra fingers, toes and nipples

Question 6

background to raine’s study?

Answer 6

studies have repeatedly shown violent offenders have poorer brain functioning compared to controls. Until Raine’s 1997 study, it had not been possible to localise which specific brain areas may be dysfunctional in violent offenders

at the time of his study, only some previous research had linked dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex to aggression. for most people, this part of the brain can ‘put the brakes on impulsive behaviour’ and prevent people from being aggressive

the introduction of brain imaging research made it possible for Raine to directly assess brain functioning in violent individuals

Question 7

what was the aim of raine?

Answer 7

to investigate differences in murderers’ brains and nonmurderers’ brains and to find evidence that the murderers were Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity (NGRI)

Question 8

what does NGRI mean?

Answer 8

argues that the defendant is not responsible for their actions due to a psychiatric disease at the time of the criminal act. It is rarely used but is sometimes successful

Question 9

why was NGRI-pleading murderers a suitable sample for Raine?

Answer 9

it was hypothesised that murderers pleading NGRI would have localised brain impairments but at the same time, there was no brain imaging research on this target population

Question 10

sample of raine?

Answer 10

41 murderers (39 men, 2 women). mean age 34.3 years.

41 nonmurderers (39 men, 2 women), mean age 31.7 years

6 participants were matched. across the conditions, participants were the same sex and age. 6 ps in each condition had schizophrenia. this study is a matched pairs design

all participants were kept medication free for the 2 week period preceding brain scanning

Question 11

what are PET scans?

Answer 11

a small amount of radioactive glucose (called a tracer) is injected

the PET scanner takes a picture of where the glucose is being used in the brain

the active parts of the brain use up more glucose so show up brighter in pictures

Question 12

IV and DV of raine?

Answer 12

IV = murderers vs nonmurderers

DV = glucose metabolism (quantitative data)

Question 13

procedure of Raine?

Answer 13

all ps were kept medication free for 2 weeks leading up to the brain scan

10 minutes before being given the FDG injection, ps were given practice trials on a Continuous Performance Task. The CPT task required ps to search for targets on a screen and press a button to indicate when the targets were spotted

ps were then injected w the FDG which was the radioactive tracer

ps then completed the CPT task

after 32 minutes, the participant went straight to the PET scanning room and their brain was scanned to measure brain activity in the cortical and sub cortical regions

Question 14

why was the CPT task used in Raine?

Answer 14

the CPT task was used bc it produces glucose metabolism in parts of the brain

Question 15

results of raine regarding the prefrontal cortex?

Answer 15

there was reduced activity in the murderers’ prefrontal cortex compared to the controls

the prefrontal cortex plays a central role in the functions such as impulse control

reduced activity can explain criminality as murderers had less control making it more difficult to have constraints on aggressive behaviour

Question 16

findings about the angular gyrus in raine?

Answer 16

there was less activity in
the murderers’ left angular gyrus
compared to the murderers

The angular gyrus has been linked
to lower verbal and reading ability,
educational failure, occupational
failure and thus, crime.

Question 17

finding about the amygdala and hippocampus in raine?

Answer 17

Murderers had less activity in the
left amygdala and left hippocampus
compared to controls.

The amygdala is responsible for fear so
reduced activity in this part of the brain
can mean someone is more likely to
commit crime due to fearlessness.

Question 18

finding about the thalamus in raine?

Answer 18

Murderers had less
activity in their left
thalamus compared to the
non-murderers.

The thalamus and
hippocampus play a role in
learning and memory.
Reduced activity in the
thalamus suggests
murderers are impaired
with learning from
experience (e.g.,
behavioural mistakes)

Question 19

finding about the corpus callosum in raine?

Answer 19

Murderers had less activity in
their corpus callosum compared to the
controls

Less activity in the corpus callosum
(which transfers information between
the hemispheres)can prevent the left
hemisphere from inhibiting the right
hemisphere’s generation of negative
emotions…leading to aggressive
behaviour.

Question 20

finding about the temporal lobe?

Answer 20

no differences were
found between the
conditions suggesting
that brain
abnormalities in
murderers may not be
in all parts of the brain

Question 21

conclusions of raine?

Answer 21

There’s evidence that murderers pleading NGRI
have brain differences to non-murderers.

It is possibly a combination of abnormal brain
processes that leads to someone being a
criminal (not just reduced activity in one part of
the brain)

Question 22

why did raine say that the results from his research should be used with caution?

Answer 22

because we cannot:

• say that biology alone contributes to crime
• say NGRIs are not responsible for their actions
• diagnose murderers
• generalise as the control/comparison group did not contain a non-violent criminal control group

Question 23

evidence for the biological strategy of intervention programmes for children involving diet, exercise and cognitive stimulation

Answer 23

in another one of Raine’s studies conducted in Mauritius, he investigated 100 children with a low resting heart rate. The children had a 3 part intervention programme. This programme focused on:

• Nutrition (given milk, fruit juice and a hot meal a day of chicken, fish or mutton with salad)
• Physical exercise (afternoon sessions of gym, structured games and free play were run)
• Cognitive stimulation (children went to 2 specially constructed nursery schools that aimed at using different methods of toys, arts, handicrafts, drama and music)

These children were compared to a control group who did not have this specialised programme

During a follow up at age 11, the research found the children could focus better and had more matured brains

In addition, the level in their brains increased. During a follow-up at age 17, they found the children also scored lower on conduct disorder ratings.

Question 24

evidence for biological strategy of omega 3 adminstration?

Answer 24

a further 100 children in Raine’s study participated in a trial with omega 3

for 6 months, children had a daily juice drink called Norwegian Smartfish, which contained a whole gram of omega 3

they were compared to a control group who just drank the juice with no omega 3 supplement

after 13 months, parents reported a significant reduction in aggression, delinquency and attention problems in those taking the drink

their behaviour was measured before, at the end of the trial (at 6 months) and 6 months after the trial finished

Raine said omega 3 enhances brain structure and function, boosts cell size and regulates neurotransmitter functioning

Question 25

what did Lewison find about the effects of plastic surgery on criminals?

Answer 25

Dr Lewison performed facial reconstructive surgery on prisoners and tracked their post-surgery behaviour

by 1965, Lewison had performed surgery on 450 patients in a Canadian prison

Behaviour changes were observed almost immediately– there was more cooperation and they participated in more prison activities. Previously hostile criminals became polite

Question 26

what is chemical castration?

Answer 26

chemical castration involves the use of drugs to lower the production of sex hormones such as testosterone. This procedure can be used to top sex offenders from re-offending

in the UK, this procedure is voluntary

Question 27

what are biological strategies for preventing criminal behaviour?

Answer 27

intervention programmes for children involving diet, exercise and cognitive stimulation

omega 3– fatty acids

plastic surgery

chemical castration

Question 28

how to answer part c crimpsych questions?

Answer 28

two strategies minimum

write what suggestion is

write how you would do it

write when/where it would be used

write why (support with evidence from study)

ALWAYS LINK TO SCENARIO– need to embed all of the characters from the question into ur answer

Question 29

what is forensic evidence?

Answer 29

information collected from a crime scene, eg ballistics, blood spatters, footprints, tyre prints, bite marks, DNA, fingerprints etc

Question 30

what are the strengths of using fingerprints as forensic evidence?

Answer 30

it is cost and time effective and relatively easy to analyse

no two people have ever been found to have the same fingerprints

we now have national and international digital databases which store fingerprints, this makes analysis of a match much easoer

Question 31

what was a real life error in finger print analysis?

Answer 31

in 2004, a series of bombs went off in Madrid. Many people were killed which led to an FBI investigation

A latent fingerprint (created by sweat) was found on a bag which was believed to have belonged to the bomber as it contained detonating devices.

A suspect was identified who was named as Brandon Mayfield. He was actually just one of 20 other matches but he had been a person of interest since 9/11. A number of experts confirmed the fingerprint was Mayfield’s

Mayfield protested his innocence until the Spanish police matched the print to the real bomber– Ouhnane Daoud. A formal apology was given to Mayfield by the US government was reportedly given a $2million settlement

Question 32

why do errors with fingerprint analysis occur?

Answer 32

cognitive biases– there might be a confirmation bias. this means people might give emphasis to, or intentionally look for evidence to confirm their beliefs

Itiel Dror suggested that because a human ultimately makes the decision as to whether there is a match, human error may occur

Question 33

what is bottom-up processing?

Answer 33

examination of ridge patterns and characteristics. ‘Zooming in’

Question 34

what is top down processing?

Answer 34

using contextual elements such as prior experience/knowledge, emotional state, and general expectations

this is where biases can occur and override objectivity

Question 35

what are some examples of cognitive biases that could influence fingerprint analysis?

Answer 35

OBSERVER/EXPECTANCY EFFECTS: the expert anticipates the outcome as a result of info from another expert

CONFORMITY EFFECT: when you’re asked to validate the opinion of a peer you’re more likely to agree with them

NEED-DETERMINAITON PERCEPTION: a bias due to a strong desire to solve a crime (strong motivation to solve case eg Madrid Case)

Question 36

what was the aim of dror 2006?

Answer 36

do contextual influences create biases in fingerprint experts?

Question 37

sample of dror 2006

Answer 37

5 fingerprint experts recruited with 85 years of experience between them

Question 38

procedure of dror 2006?

Answer 38

signed consent form giving permission that at sometime in the next 12 months, theyll be tested in their normal working environment

they were asked to analyse a pair of fingerprints that they had previously declared as matching in a real life case 5 years earlier (but they did not know this during the research). They were told that the pair of prints had been mistakenly matched previously by the FBI as the Madrid Bomber

Question 39

findings of dror 2006?

Answer 39

4 of the ps changed their identification from 5 years earlier

3 of these 4 ps now judged the fingerprints as ‘definite non-matched’ but one of these 4 now judged that there was insufficient information to make a definite decision

Question 40

conclusion of dror 2006

Answer 40

fingerprint experts decisions can be influenced by contextual influences

Question 41

aim of dror 2005

Answer 41

what are the effects of top down processing (emotion and subliminal messages)

Question 42

sample of dror 2005

Answer 42

27 university student volunteers

Question 43

procedure of dror 2005

Answer 43

ps asked to analyse 96 good quality or incomplete poor quality fingerprints. also given emotional stimuli (case details about bike theft) or high emotional stimuli (case details about a murder). photographs were also used

Question 44

findings of dror 2005

Answer 44

when the fingerprint was poor quality, ps relied more on the contextual information– they were also affected by the emotional context

they were more likely to say a pair of prints was a match when analysing poor quality prints

Question 45

what is the current protocol for analysis prints in the met police?

Answer 45

involves providing the fingerprint examiner with a copy of the crime scene report. this report details the nature of the crime but does not provide any photographic images of the crime scene

Question 46

background of hall and player?

Answer 46

wanted to investigate whether real fingerprint experts (rather than students as previously used by Dror) would be affected by the emotional context of the crime scene report

previous research by dror found that non-experts were more likely to identify a match between fingerprints when presented with a high emotional context rather than a low emotional context

Question 47

aim of hall and player

Answer 47

to investigate whether the written report of a crime will affect a fingerprint expert’s interpretation of a poor quality fingerprint mark

to investigate whether fingerprint experts are emotionally affected by the circumstances of a case

Question 48

sample of hall and player

Answer 48

70 ps

worked at the Metropolitan Police Fingerprint Bureau

Length of experience ranged from less than 3 months to more than 30 years

Mean length of experience 11 years

VOLUNTEER SAMPLING METHOD

all asked to participate in work time

details of experiment were not disclosed

Question 49

what were the conditions in hall and player

Answer 49

condition 1 = low emotional context, allegation of forgery. trying to pay for some goods with a fake £50 note

condition 2 = high emotional context, allegation of murder. trying to pay for some goods with a fake £50 but then they shoot the guy twice

Question 50

design of hall and player

Answer 50

independent measures

Question 51

procedure of hall and player

Answer 51

ps either received the low emotional or high emotional context crime scene report. just like in real life, fingerprint experts did not have to read the report. 35 ps were in each condition

ps were given a £50 note with a superimposed (placed on the note using a computer) fingerprint in the corner. they were told to treat the task as part of their normal working day

they had a magnifying glass to help then analyse the note against the suspects fingerprints. Ps were also provided with a Russel comparator.

to obtain quantitative data, the experts were asked to consider whether the note mark was a match, not a match, insufficient (not enough detail to make a comparison) or insufficient detail to establish identity.

To obtain qualitative data, ps were also asked to elaborate on their findings by providing observations and opinions

finally, ps completed a feedback sheet which asked whether they had referred to the crime scene report prior to their assessment of the marks and to indicate what info they had read. if they had referred to the report, they had to state whether they felt that the information contained on the report had affected their analysis, and if so, how.

Question 52

what were the materials in hall and player

Answer 52

cannon laser 1000 printer
test mark on £50 note
10-print fingerprint form
magnifying glass
russel comparator
computer that superimposes

Question 53

results of hall and player

Answer 53

no significant difference was found between the two conditions. the emotional context of the crime scene reports did not affect the overall outcome of whether the analysts thought the prints were a match

52% of the 30 who had read the high emotional context crime scene report about murder felt that they were affected by the info given in the report. this is significantly greater in comparison who had read and reported that they were affected by the low emotional context crime scene report about forgery

not all ps read the crime scene report. 57 out of 70 ps indicated that they had read the crime scene report prior to examining the prints. 30 out of the 57 had been in the high emotional condition. 19% of the ps did not read the crime scene report at all

Question 54

how is hall and player high in population validity

Answer 54

fingerprint experts is the target population

range of experience from experts

Question 55

how does hall and player lack population validity

Answer 55

all work for MET police

volunteer sampling– biased towards more confident experts

Question 56

how is hall and player high in ecological validity

Answer 56

they were given what experts are normally given eg 10 print finger form, examination report ,sheet of paper advising of the contents and the mark. also given a magnifying glass and russel comparator which they would usually use.

Question 57

how is hall and player low in ecological validity

Answer 57

experts would not normally be presented with a fingermark on card

they were not allowed to discuss the fingerprints with coworkers

Question 58

how did hall and player reduce demand characteristics

Answer 58

did not declare the full details of the experiment

Question 59

what are the strategies to reduce bias in the collection and processing of forensic evidence?

Answer 59

fingerprint ‘line-ups’

blind testing

sequential unmasking

Question 60

what are fingerprint ‘lineups’

Answer 60

this involves providing fingerprint analysts with similar multiple possible comparisons (including fillers and possible matches)– as opposed to just latent fingerprints and the ones matched on the computer

the examiner would then be working more blind to the information about which fingerprint may belong to the suspect

Question 61

what is blind testing

Answer 61

fingerprint experts should not be aware of any information about the crime and unaware of the person who has previously also examined the prints

this strategy attempts to remove as many top down processes as possible

Question 62

what is sequential unmasking

Answer 62

the examiner has information revealed to them as and when they need it– only when necessary so that the examiners only receive the information they need to conduct their forensic testing

Question 63

which study supports sequential unmasking

Answer 63

dan krane and his colleagues, who coined the phrase ‘sequential unmasking’, have asserted that this debiasing technique is an ‘obvious, common sense step’ for dealing with a recognised flaw in the task presented to forensic scientists

Question 64

which study supports blind testing

Answer 64

dror

Question 65

what study supports finger print line ups

Answer 65

miller

used a human hair evidence line up, which significantly reduced inaccurate conclusions and mitigated cognitive biases

Question 66

what is the Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation

Answer 66

a psychological police interview technique designed to get confessions/evidence out of unwilling suspects

only used in the US (the UK does not use interrogation)

the technique has been criticised as it could lead to false confessions

Question 67

what are the stages in the Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation

Answer 67

1. Confrontation Stage
2. Theme Development
3. Stopping Denials
4. Overcoming objections
5. Getting the suspects’ attention
6. Handling mood
7. Present the alternatives
8. Confession in front of witnesses
9. written confession

Question 68

what is the standard interview

Answer 68

most basic type of interviewing and it is easy to train officers with (cheap)

can vary amongst interviewers and may include interruptions which affect recall

involves 4 stages of orientation, listening, questions and answers and advice

Question 69

what is the cognitive interview

Answer 69

Geiselman et al (1985) developed the Cognitive Interview as an alternative to the Standard Interview. It apples psychological principles to increase the accuracy of witness’ memories

Question 70

what are the four parts of the cognitive interview

Answer 70

mental reinstatement of context technique

report everything technique

change perspective technique

recall in different/reverse orders technique

Question 71

what is the mental reinstatement of context technique

Answer 71

based on context dependent memory

witnesses are asked to mentally take themselves back to the scene of the crime to imagine the smells, sounds, light, thoughts, feelings and the physical context

Question 72

what is the report everything technique

Answer 72

witnesses are asked to report everything they can from the event, even if they see it as irrelevant

Question 73

what is the change perspective technique

Answer 73

witness is encouraged to describe the event as others saw it, such as the perpetrator, victim or another witness

Question 74

what is the recall in different/reverse orders technique

Answer 74

witnesses asked to recall the event in reverse

can help prevent schemas affecting their memory, as otherwise the danger is that the witness will reconstruct the event and their memory will be distorted

Question 75

what is the enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 75

the enhanced version of the cognitive interview contains the same four retrieval rules as the original

the enhanced CI includes more social aspects including techniques to improve communication, minimise distractions, allowing for pauses between questions and tailoring the language to suit the witness

involves putting the witness at ease to enable their account to be more accurate

Question 76

what was the aim of fisher 1989

Answer 76

to investigate the effectiveness of the cognitive interview on witness testimony

Question 77

procedure of fisher

Answer 77

used a field experiment of 16 detectives from Miami, Florida

7 of the 16 detectives were trained to use the cognitive interview

interviews were recorded and analysed by a team at the University of California, who were blind to the conditions. The researchers counted the number of facts remembered

Question 78

findings of fisher

Answer 78

after CI training, the 7 detectives gained 47% more information after training compared to previous interviews

the detectives also gained 63% more information from witnesses compared to 9 untrained detectives

Question 79

conclusion of fisher

Answer 79

the cognitive interview is effective

Question 80

what did Gudjonsson do?

Answer 80

conducted a case study of a 17 year old boy (FC) accused of committing two murders

during police interrogation, the boy was put under pressure which made him confess to the murders, which he did not do. Initially, the boy denied committing the crimes, but after extensive interviewing for 14 hours, he confessed

FC was described as ‘coerced compliant’ which mean the gave a false confession to escape the stressful interview situation

Question 81

aim of Memon and Higham?

Answer 81

to review theoretical and methodological issues that they believed needed to be considered when researching the cognitive interview. They also offer suggestions for future implementation of the CI

Question 82

sample of memon and higham

Answer 82

reviewed 65 pieces of research into the Cognitive Interview and memory

Question 83

procedure of memon and higham

Answer 83

conducted a review article summarising previous research into the CI. They made suggestions for future use of the CI and future research into the CI

Question 84

what were the four mains sections of memon and higham’s review?

Answer 84

the effectiveness of the 4 components

comparison of the CI to other interview techniques

measures of memory

quality of training

Question 85

what was memon and highams finding about the effectiveness of context reinstatement

Answer 85

found to be the most effective component
of the CI. Can gather as much information as the full CI procedure
used as a whole however other research has shown this stage also
shows no positive effects.

Question 86

m + h – effectiveness of recalling from different perspectives?

Answer 86

can lead to false
memories – some police officers have expressed concern about this
stage. Has been found to produce information as accurate as the
other CI techniques.

Question 87

m + h, effectiveness of recall in reverse order stage?

Answer 87

one study found it was more effective
to recall in forward order, then followed by reverse order compared
to make 2 attempts at recalling from the beginning.

Question 88

what did m + h say about comparison interviews in research

Answer 88

It’s no longer appropriate for future research to
compare the CI with the standard interview as
they are too different from one another (the SI is not standardised and varies between
interviewers)

Question 89

what did m+h say about measures of memory

Answer 89

Previous research into this looks at the number of correct/incorrect details remembered but fails to look at the amount and detail about unreported information.

The ‘recall everything’ component in the CI can be more effective than the SI as the SI goes by “tell the whole truth and nothing but the truth” so may restrict witness’ responses.

Question 90

what did m + h say about the quality of training

Answer 90

training on the CI. Research has found that minimal training (4hours) on the CI has shown poor practice. Research has highlighted a need for better training.

Attitude, motivation and experience all play a role in effectiveness of
the CI.

Feedback should be given to officers on their performance. Practice ofthe CI is needed.

A 2 day training programme on the Cognitive Interview is advised.

Officers should be identified and trained by potential. But this assumes poor interviewers won’t benefit from training

police officers may be less likely to contest the training techniques of a superior officer in the force than an external researcher from a university setting

Question 91

conclusions from m + h’s review?

Answer 91

research into the effectiveness of the CI and its components is inconclusive and contradictory– there is a need for further research into the CI’s effectiveness

future research into the effectiveness of the CI should avoid comparing the CI to the police standard interview as they are too different from one another

future research should focus on the unreported information by witnesses, not just the reported/remembered information

interviewers differ in their ability and motivation to conduct an effective CI– more quality training is needed to ensure high effectiveness of retrieving accurate witness’ memories

Question 92

what is a jury?

Answer 92

the final decision in a trial comes down to a jury– they decide if the person is guilty or not guilty

in the UK a jury is made up of 12 randomly selected citizens who are chosen from the electoral register (18+)

if you are summoned for jury service it is mandatory

if you do not turn up their is a £1000 fine– it is our civil duty

Question 93

what is court procedure?

Answer 93

the prosecution make their case against the defendant. they call any witnesses.

the defence lawyer is allowed to cross-examine the prosecution’s witnesses

after the prosecution present their case, the defence present their case and call their witnesses to the stand

prosecution sum up their arguments

defence sum up their arguments

the judge instructs the jury on their responsibilities then they deliberate

Question 94

what else could influence the jury’s verdict?

Answer 94

extra-legal variables, such as:

• age
• race
• confidence
• social class
• accent
• how they are dressed
• attractiveness
• profession

Question 95

what was penrod and cutler’s 1995 study?

Answer 95

used a lab experiment and independent measures design to investigate whether a confident witness leads to more chance of a guilty verdict and the ‘jury’ being more likely to believe the witness

a female ‘witness’ said she was either 80% confident with her eyewitness account or 100% confident to participants (the IV)

when witness said she was 80% confident to ps, 60% of ps gave guilty verdicts, but when the witness said she was 100% confident, 67% of ps gave guilty verdicts

it was concluded that witness confidence could therefore affect the jury’s decision

Question 96

what is the halo effect

Answer 96

a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about their character

when someone looks good, we assume their personal attributes are good too

Question 97

what was castellow’s study

Answer 97

castellow investigated whether an attractive defendant is less likely to be seen as guilty

prior to the study, photographs of defendants were rated on their attractiveness from 1-9 by a panel

ps were given the evidence from a sexual harassment case and were then asked if they thought the defendant was guilty

it was found that unattractive defendants were found guilty 77% of the time compared to 56% for attractive defendants

Question 98

aim of dixon

Answer 98

to examine the effect of regional accent on the attribution of guilt

Question 99

participants of dixon

Answer 99

119 white undergraduate psychology students

24 men, 95 women

mean age of 25.2 years

Question 100

procedure of dixon

Answer 100

ps listened to a 2 minute tape recorded conversation based on a real transcript of a police interview that took place in 1995

there were different versions of the tape depending on the condition the p was in. this study used independent measures design

ps listened to a police officer interrogating a young man who was pleading innocent of a crime which he was a suspect of

after listening to one of the tape versions, ps were asked to rate the suspect on a 7 point scale from innocent to guilty

ps also completed a questionnaire called the Speech Evaluation Instrument (SEI) which measured ps evaluations of the lang using 3 dimensions: superiority, attractiveness, and dynamism

Question 101

what were the IVs of Dixon

Answer 101

brummie accent vs standard accent

black vs white suspect

white collar crime (cheque fraud) vs blue collar crime (armed robbery)

Question 102

results of dixon

Answer 102

the brummie suspect was rated lower on superiority

the brummie suspect was rated higher on guilt compared to the standard accented suspect

there was a three way interaction of Brummie accent/black suspect/blue collar worker had a significantly higher guilt attributions compared to other combinations

Question 103

what are the strategies to influence jury decision making

Answer 103

using an expert witness to persuade the jury, eg psychologist or police officer, they will seem more confident which links to penrod and cutler

conceal the characteristics of defendants that could affect jurors. eg defendants could testify behind a screen to hide their appearance. supported by castellow

change or adapt accent, or have a spokesperson for the defendant. dixon.

dress smartly. castellow supports.

Question 104

who devised defensible space theory and what is it?

Answer 104

oscar newman

he argued that environmental design play a crucial part in increasing or reducing criminality

he wrote a book which contained a study from NY that pointed out crime rates were higher in high rise apartment buildings compared to lower housing projects

he suggested this was because residents in high-rise buildings felt no responsibility for communal areas

Question 105

what is defensible space?

Answer 105

space that can be perceived to belong to a particular person or group of people, with good visibility

Question 106

what were the differences between the van dyke building and the brownsville building? (newman)

Answer 106

van dyke= 14 storey, high rise. graffiti and vandalism much higher. overall crime rate was 66% higher in Van Dyke than Brownsville

brownsville= had less repair maintenance than van dyke, better cooperation between residents and police than van dyke. 6 storeys, more defensible space and surveillance opportunities

Question 107

how does defensible space theory explain crime

Answer 107

suggests opportunities for crime are reduced when the environmental design can be manipulated to create spaces that are less vulnerable to crime by providing residents with more opportunities to control their space and defend if necessary

Question 108

what is broken windows theory

Answer 108

the term ‘broken windows’ is a metaphor for any visible signs of disorder in an environment.

the theory suggests visible signs of crime create an environment that encourages further crime and disorder

Question 109

what is zero tolerance policing

Answer 109

emerged from the Broken Windows Theory

also called the ‘quality of life initiative’ or ‘order maintenance policing’

involved cracking down on petty crimes to prevent bigger crimes

william bratton enforced this new style of policing in NYC

Question 110

what was the evidence that zero-tolerance policing worked at reducing crime in NY?

Answer 110

in 1992 arrests for serious crimes decreased by 25%

between 1990 and 2009, the homicide rate had declined by 82% in NY

Question 111

what was the Safe and Clean Neighbourhoods Program?

Answer 111

in the 1970s, the state of new jersey had implemented the Safe and Clean Neighbourhoods Program in 28 different NJ cities. The Program was designed to improve the quality of community life in cities

the program also involved changing the way police officers carried out their work. as part of this program, the police were required to move from car patrols and carry out more foot patrols

Question 112

aim of wilson and kelling?

Answer 112

wilson and kelling investigated the impact of the Safe and Clean Neighbourhoods Program, particularly focussing on foot patrols. they were particularly interested in:

• why people felt safer when crime rates had not decreased (and may have even increased)
• how the police defined ‘order’ and how they maintained public order in Newark, NJ

Question 113

sample of wilson and kelling

Answer 113

police officers (mostly white) and the public of Newark, NJ (mostly black)

Question 114

procedure of wilson and kelling

Answer 114

kelling conducted a naturalistic participant observation, and joined some police foot patrols in Newark (one of the 28 cities in NJ).

kelling spent many hours walking with Newark foot patrol officers. he observed interactions between the police and members of the public

wilson and kelling then developed the Broken Windows Theory and write about their research findings in an article published in a magazine called The Atlantic

Question 115

what were wilson and kelling’s findings regarding foot patrols?

Answer 115

after a five year review of the safe and clean neighbourhoods programme, it was found that an increase in foot patrols had not reduced crime rates

however, the foot patrols had made residents feel safer. residents thought crime had reduced and were now taking fewer precautions such as not locking their door when at home

police also seemed to have higher morale than patrol car patrol officers.

foot patrol officers got to know the community well

Question 116

what was kelling’s observation/findings about informal rules and zero-tolerance policing?

Answer 116

kelling observed how the Newark police were attempting to prevent crime through the use of informal rules and zero tolerance policing

this strategy meant that the police were targeting smaller crimes to prevent more serious disorder from occurring

example informal rules included not allowing drunk people to lie down on stoops, but they could sit on them; people could drink on side streets but not on main streets; begging was not allowed. people who did not follow the informal rules were arrested

Question 117

what were the conclusions of wilson and kelling?

Answer 117

existing beliefs about foot patrols had changed and now more positive, even though statistically they did not seem to catch criminals

informal controls help maintain public order and improve the quality of life in cities

wilson and kelling suggested the broken windows theory. this theory therefore suggests that police should target minor disorder such as graffiti/vandalism, otherwise this can escalate and lead to more serious crime and disorder. by targeting minor crimes, this will show the public that the police do care, and this should help prevent more crime occurring

citizen policing might be a sufficient way to tackle crime and disorder, for example the Guardian Angels

Question 118

what are situational strategies to prevent crime?

Answer 118

communities should use defensible space and have good environmental design

use a zero tolerance approach by using informal rules– target the smaller crimes/disorder

use foot patrols

target hardening

Question 119

how could defensible space be used to prevent crime?

Answer 119

design neighbourhoods so there is clear defensible space

eg entrances overlooked, use courtyards, and make areas appear individual and personalised

supported by Newman

Question 120

how could zero tolerance policing be carried out to prevent crime?

Answer 120

no tolerance for even minor disorder

this will stop it from getting worse (broken windows theory)

supported by bratton– showed that crime rates reduced by 25% the first few years after introduction

Question 121

how could foot patrols be carried out to help prevent crime

Answer 121

increase police presence in the community and assign offices to ‘walking beats’

can help people feel safer in the community by cleaning up disorder

use of informal rules can help prevent disorder

does not necessarily reduce crime rates, but does make people feel safer and police morale is improved

supported by wilson and kelling

Question 122

how could target hardening be used to help prevent crime

Answer 122

this involves making it more difficult (or harder) for people to commit crime by making targets more resistant to attack/remove/damage.

eg locking doors and windows or bike locks

eg alarms and high fences

supported by research conducted in liverpool by Newton in 2008, which found target hardening reduced burglaries

Question 123

what does prison aim to achieve

Answer 123

deterrent

rehabilitation

incapacitation

punishment

Question 124

how can prison be seen as effective

Answer 124

for the 86,000 people incarcerated in the UK it ensures they are not offending

in addition, as prison takes away a persons freedom it is seen as highly effective way for a criminal to pay for their crime as it provides justice to society and the victim

most prisoners believe they have learned their lesson and are determined that they won’t go back to prison

Question 125

what was the aim of dooley

Answer 125

to investigate the nature and amount of deaths in prisons in England and Wales between 1972 and 1987

Question 126

procedure of dooley

Answer 126

content analysis

looked at prison data in England and Wales between 1972 and 1987

Question 127

results of dooley

Answer 127

442 unnatural deaths were recorded in prisons in England and Wales between 1972 and 1987

300 0f these deaths received a coroner’s verdict of suicide

52 were consciously self-inflicted injury (accidental suicide)

Question 128

aim of gillis and nafekh

Answer 128

to investigate the effectiveness of a community based employment scheme (a programme where prisoners on parole could be employed before the end of their sentence).

To see if this programme affected the recidivism rates (reoffending rates)

Question 129

sample of gillis and nafekh

Answer 129

over 20,000 prisoners on conditional release

all Canadian

95% male

Question 130

procedure of gillis and nafekh

Answer 130

content analysis

condition 1 = some offenders were employed on conditional release

condition 2 = some offenders were unemployed on conditional release

Question 131

findings of gillis and nafekh

Answer 131

employed offenders were less likely to reoffend than unemployed offenders

70% of those on the scheme successfully completed their conditional release.

This was compared to the 55% of those not on the employment scheme who completed their conditional release

if the employed offenders did reoffend, this was much later (median time 37 months) than the unemployed (median time = 11 months)

Question 132

aim of zimbardo

Answer 132

to investigate the behavioural and psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard

Question 133

sample of zimbardo

Answer 133

24 male volunteers

college students

advert in a newspaper offered $15 a day

all judged to be the most stable and mature

Question 134

what was the prisoners condition in zimbardo

Answer 134

12 prisoners

have to remain in there just like in real prison for 2 weeks

signed a contract that they would have some of their civil rights suspended

Question 135

what was the guards condition in zimbardo

Answer 135

12 guards

told to maintain ‘reasonable degree of order within the prison’

they were given minimal guidelines

Question 136

sampling technique of zimbardo

Answer 136

volunteer sampling

Question 137

how were participants allocated their roles in zimbardo

Answer 137

were randomly allocated their roles of guards or prisoners using a flip of a coin

Question 138

what were the prisoners uniforms in zimbardo

Answer 138

wore a ‘dress’ with no underclothes

prison number on the front and the back

loosely fitting rubber sandals

wore a cap

chain on their ankle

Question 139

what were the guards’ uniforms in zimbardo

Answer 139

khaki uniforms

baton

mirrored sunglasses

whistle around their neck

Question 140

procedure of zimbardo: arresting the prisoners

Answer 140

the local police department ‘unexpectedly’ arrested the prisoners in their homes. The prisoners were handcuffed, thoroughly searched and taken to the police station where they were fingerprinted and ‘booked in’/ they were charged at the police station with suspicion of either burglary or armed robbery

each prisoner was then blindfolded and driven to the mock prison. they were blindfolded to separate the prisoners from the outside world (to help them make the prison feel real)

Question 141

procedure of zimbardo: prison arrival

Answer 141

prisoners were stripped, sprayed with delousing spray (which was actually deodorant) and made to stand naked in the ‘cell yard’. this part of the procedure was designed to increase the ecological validity of the study and humiliate the prisoners

the prisoners were then put into a cell and ordered by the guards to remain silent. The cell only had beds in them.

Prisoners were referred to by their prison number as opposed to their name to depersonalise them

Question 142

what were the instructions given to the guards in zimbardo

Answer 142

given limited guidance but were told no physical violence was allowed.

instructed to maintain order in the prison

had to work shifts, manage meals, work and hold recreation programmes for the prisoners

prisoners were lined up for a ‘count’ three times a day

Question 143

what were the dependent variables in zimbardo

Answer 143

behaviour was measured in several ways such as video and audio recording, personality tests, questionnaires and post experimental interviews

data was mainly qualitative

Question 144

what happened on day 2 in zimbardo

Answer 144

prisoners began to rebel

guards started to control

prisoners began to break down after 36 hours

Question 145

what happened on day 3 in zimbardo

Answer 145

some prisoners went on a hunger strike

guards tried to break the prisoners down

Question 146

what happened on day 6 of zimbardo

Answer 146

the experiment ended

it was stopped after 6 days instead of the planned 14

Question 147

how was the prison internalised in zimbardo

Answer 147

the prison was internalised by both the prisoners and guards– they started to believe it to be real

both guards and prisoners become increasingly negative and had negative emotions

Question 148

what was the behaviour of the guards like in zimbardo

Answer 148

started most of the interactions which were mostly commands

became verbally abusive towards the prisoners– ‘pathology of power’

some guards were not happy the study ended prematurely

not all guards resorted to hostility– some were tough but fair

Question 149

what was prisoner behaviour like in zimbardo

Answer 149

generally passive response

5 prisoners had to be released because of extreme emotional depression, crying, rage and anxiety (pathological prisoner syndrome)

experienced feelings of isolation

some prisoners became excessively obedient and did tolerate the oppressive atmosphere

Question 150

how was deindividuation present in zimbardo

Answer 150

loss of identity– prisoners even referred to each other by their number

Question 151

how was learned helplessness present in zimbardo

Answer 151

sense of powerlessness. the prisoners ceased power because they learned they no longer had control

Question 152

how was dependency present in zimbardo

Answer 152

the prisoners had to depend on the guards for things such as smoking, going to the toilet etc, which emasculated them

Question 153

conclusions of zimbardo

Answer 153

this research demonstrates the powerful effect roles (and the situation) can have on behaviour

ps were playing the role they thought was expected of a prisoner or a guard

social roles/the situation can influence behaviour– the prison environment can lead to brutal behaviour and have negative psychological and behavioural effects on prisoners

Question 154

strategies for reducing reoffending: employment schemes

Answer 154

implementing employment schemes on conditional release is an effective way of reducing reoffending bc it promotes community reintergration

supported by gillis and nefekh

could also have something in place where offenders have opportunities to gain qualifications for trades in prison

Question 155

what is restorative justice (strategy for reducing reoffending)

Answer 155

process through which parties w a stake in a specific offence collectively resolve how to deal with the aftermath of the offence and its implications for the future

can take the form of victim-offender mediation either through direct contact between the offender and victim, or indirect communication involving third parties.

it can also involve restitution or reparation where this is agreed between offenders and their victims

Question 156

what is a strategy for reducing reoffending regarding community based drug or alcohol treatment

Answer 156

community based drug or alcohol treatment can increase the number of people who do not reoffend in the two years after treatment to 44% (Public Health England and MoJ, 2017)