Memory Flash Cards

Question

Who conducted research on the Primacy and Recency Effects?

Answer 1

Murdock ## Footnote He tested recall using lists of words.

Answer 2

One word at a time at a rate of one word per second ## Footnote This method was used to study recall.

Answer 3

Probability of recall depended on serial position ## Footnote Early and late words were recalled more often than middle words.

Answer 4

Words early in the list were put into LTM ## Footnote This occurs because there is time for rehearsal.

Answer 5

Words at the end of the list went into STM ## Footnote STM can typically hold about 7 items.

Answer 6

They are often forgotten ## Footnote These words were displaced from STM by later words.

Answer 7

It supports the idea of separate stores for STM and LTM ## Footnote This is evidence for the Multi-Store Model.

Answer 8

Removal of the hippocampi ## Footnote The hippocampi are central to memory function.

Answer 9

Long-term memory (LTM)

Answer 10

He performed well ## Footnote This indicates that his short-term memory (STM) was unaffected.

Answer 11

Multi-store model (MSM)

Answer 12

Motorcycle accident

Answer 13

It remained unaffected

Answer 14

There may be different types of STM

Answer 15

Episodic memory

Answer 16

Procedural memory

Answer 17

Serial position effect

Answer 18

Long-term memory (LTM)

Answer 19

It is a separate store from long-term memory (LTM)

Answer 20

It does not consider different types of LTM

Answer 21

Through rehearsal

Answer 22

A type of long-term memory for the performance of particular types of actions. ## Footnote Procedural memory is often contrasted with declarative memory, which involves facts and events.

Answer 23

A type of long-term memory involving the storage of facts and general knowledge. ## Footnote Examples include knowing that women change their name when they get married or that people celebrate birthdays.

Answer 24

It proposes that memory consists of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). ## Footnote The MSM was the first cognitive explanation of memory.

Answer 25

A phenomenon where people recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items. ## Footnote This effect supports the distinction between STM and LTM.

Answer 26

Primacy effect and recency effect. ## Footnote The primacy effect refers to better recall of items at the beginning of a list, while the recency effect refers to better recall of items at the end.

Answer 27

Craik and Watkins (1973). ## Footnote They argued that elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information to existing knowledge for better long-term storage.

Answer 28

A process that involves repeating information to keep it in short-term memory and to transfer it to long-term memory. ## Footnote The MSM primarily focuses on this type of rehearsal.

Answer 29

It is considered too simplistic and reductionist. ## Footnote Critics argue that it assumes a single STM and LTM store, while evidence suggests multiple types of each.

Answer 30

It has influenced other psychologists and formed the basis for the working memory model. ## Footnote This has led to a greater understanding of how memory functions.

Answer 31

False. ## Footnote Critics argue that it focuses too much on the structure of memory and not enough on the processes involved.

Answer 32

Episodic, semantic, procedural

Answer 33

Memories stored over an extended period, including personal events with specific times and places

Answer 34

A long-term memory store for knowledge of the world, including facts and meanings of words and concepts

Answer 35

A long-term memory store for knowledge of how to do things, including learned skills

Answer 36

Memories held for durations above 30 seconds

Answer 37

Declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit)

Answer 38

Memories that can be consciously inspected and recalled, including episodic and semantic memories

Answer 39

Memories that cannot be consciously recalled, such as procedural memories

Answer 40

Recalling a specific event, like going to the zoo with a friend last week

Answer 41

They include specific times and locations of personal events

Answer 42

Neocortex and hippocampus

Answer 43

Different sense areas store parts of the event, which are connected in the hippocampus

Answer 44

Conscious recall of facts that have meaning without needing to remember when or where they were learned

Answer 45

Hippocampus, frontal lobes, temporal lobes

Answer 46

Implicit knowledge of tasks that usually do not require conscious recall

Answer 47

Riding a bike

Answer 48

It helps people to speak automatically without thinking about how to do so

Answer 49

Permits simultaneous performance of other cognitive tasks requiring attention

Answer 50

Neocortex, primary motor cortex, cerebellum, prefrontal cortex

Answer 51

Greater activation in frontal lobes for episodic memories and greater activation in posterior cortex for semantic memories

Answer 52

They involve different brain areas, suggesting separate forms of long-term memory

Answer 53

Females performed better than males on tasks requiring episodic long-term memory

Answer 54

No difference was found for semantic memory

Answer 55

Females having a higher verbal ability

Answer 56

No, the extent of separation is unclear

Answer 57

They might be better explained as 'declarative' memories

Answer 58

Episodic and semantic memories ## Footnote These systems use different brain areas.

Answer 59

Semantic memory ## Footnote This suggests that episodic and semantic memories are separate systems.

Answer 60

A network of associations formed in different brain areas ## Footnote Semantic memories are not localized to a single area.

Answer 61

HM could learn new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories ## Footnote HM improved at tasks without recalling prior attempts.

Answer 62

They argue for two types of LTM: declarative and non-declarative ## Footnote This contrasts with Tulving's three types.

Answer 63

Procedural memories generally take a lot longer to learn ## Footnote This may relate to the involvement of motor functions.

Answer 64

Lack of control and no clinical measurements before brain damage ## Footnote This affects the generalizability of findings.

Answer 65

Episodic memories could be improved in individuals with mild cognitive impairment ## Footnote Participants trained in memory techniques performed better than a control group.

Answer 66

Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer ## Footnote The WMM is a more complex view of memory than earlier models.

Answer 67

It acts as a supervisory system that controls attention and coordinates information ## Footnote The CE is central to the functioning of working memory.

Answer 68

Dual-task technique ## Footnote This technique assesses the capacity of working memory.

Answer 69

A representation of STM that suggests it is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision-making system.

Answer 70

Coordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory and allocates processing resources.

Answer 71

Information in terms of sound, including both written and spoken material.

Answer 72

* Phonological store * Articulatory process

Answer 73

Visual and spatial information in a mental space often called the 'inner eye'.

Answer 74

Brings together material from the other subsystems into a single memory and provides a bridge between working memory and LTM.

Answer 75

Dual-task technique.

Answer 76

Baddeley and Hitch in 1974.

Answer 77

WMM proposes that STM is composed of three, limited capacity stores, rather than a single storage system.

Answer 78

An 'active' store that holds several pieces of information while they are being worked on.

Answer 79

Participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard.

Answer 80

The CE manages competing tasks and is limited in capacity, able to cope with one type of information at a time.

Answer 81

The prefrontal cortex.

Answer 82

The PL temporarily retains language-based information in auditory form.

Answer 83

* Articulatory process * Phonological store

Answer 84

It allows maintenance rehearsal and involves subvocal repetition.

Answer 85

Auditory speech information and the order in which it was heard.

Answer 86

The PL is a separate system, as evidenced by a case study of SC.

Answer 87

Participants recalled more short words than longer words, indicating capacity is set by pronunciation time.

Answer 88

The VSS temporarily retains visual and spatial information.

Answer 89

3 or 4 objects.

Answer 90

* Visual cache * Inner scribe

Answer 91

There was more interference between two visual tasks than between a visual and spatial task.

Answer 92

Participants had difficulty tracking a moving light and describing an angle simultaneously, indicating the VSS is a separate system.

Answer 93

It integrates and sequences information from different components of the working memory.

Answer 94

Central Executive

Answer 95

To store visual information about form and color.

Answer 96

Spatial relationships and the arrangement of objects.

Answer 97

Facilitates communication between components of the WMM and LTM, integrates information, and maintains time sequencing ## Footnote The EB can hold 4 chunks of information.

Answer 98

Greater right-frontal brain activation for combined verbal and spatial information ## Footnote This suggests biological evidence of an EB that allows temporary storage of integrated information.

Answer 99

The patient demonstrated a STM capacity of 25 items, exceeding PL and VSS capacity ## Footnote This suggests the existence of an EB that holds items in working memory until recalled.

Answer 100

To measure performance while participants perform two tasks simultaneously

Answer 101

Performance is poorer than when tasks are completed separately

Answer 102

Little is known about how it works; it is vague and can explain any experimental results

Answer 103

They showed signs of 'Dysexecutive Syndrome'

Answer 104

time sequencing

Answer 105

A condition observed in patients with impaired executive function

Answer 106

Decision making and attention switching ## Footnote This area has important consequences for the treatment of serious psychotic disorders.

Answer 107

Greater activity in the left prefrontal cortex ## Footnote As task difficulty increased, activity in the left prefrontal cortex also increased.

Answer 108

As demands on the CE increase, it must work harder to fulfil its function.

Answer 109

Different areas are activated for verbal and visual tasks ## Footnote This suggests that the phonological loop (PL) and the visual-spatial sketchpad (VSS) are separate slave systems.

Answer 110

Left hemisphere for visual tasks and right hemisphere for spatial tasks.

Answer 111

It implies that all spatial information was first visual and that the two are linked.

Answer 112

Lieberman (1980) ## Footnote He noted that blind people have excellent spatial awareness without visual information.

Answer 113

KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information normally.

Answer 114

There are different slave systems in the WMM.

Answer 115

Unique cases may not provide accurate evidence ## Footnote Brain damage cases may differ from individuals without brain damage, reducing generalizability.

Answer 116

When old information interferes with the learning of new information.

Answer 117

When new information interferes with the recall of old information.

Answer 118

Working Memory

Answer 119

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten. ## Footnote Interference can be proactive or retroactive.

Answer 120

Forgetting occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer memories. ## Footnote The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.

Answer 121

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories. ## Footnote The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.

Answer 122

They are more-or-less permanent, but retrieval issues can occur. ## Footnote Forgetting can happen due to various reasons, including interference.

Answer 123

Interference occurs when similar information disrupts the recall of what someone is trying to remember. ## Footnote This theory explains why forgetting happens in LTM.

Answer 124

Calling your current boyfriend/girlfriend by the name of your ex-boyfriend/girlfriend. ## Footnote Here, the older memory interferes with the recall of the newer memory.

Answer 125

Not being able to remember your old postcode because you can only think about your new postcode. ## Footnote The newer memory interferes with the recall of the older memory.

Answer 126

new information.

Answer 127

old information.

Answer 128

To investigate whether the similarity of memories influences recall.

Answer 129

6 different conditions.

Answer 130

Group 6 = no new list.

Answer 131

Group 1 = synonyms.

Answer 132

Interference is strongest when the memories are similar.

Answer 133

The influence of retroactive interference upon the memory of street names learned during childhood.

Answer 134

Ages ranged from 11-79 years.

Answer 135

There was a positive association between the number of times individuals had moved and the number of street names forgotten.

Answer 136

Whether interference was a better explanation for forgetting than the passage of time.

Answer 137

Forgetting was due to the number of games played, rather than how much time had passed.

Answer 138

It is a valid explanation of forgetting in a real-life situation.

Answer 139

To gather relevant details such as how many times participants had moved house.

Answer 140

Unrelated words.

Answer 141

As many teams they had played against as possible.

Answer 142

retroactive.

Answer 143

Sleep helps to strengthen memory.

Answer 144

Interference can significantly impact recall.

Answer 145

Sleep helps to strengthen memories and reduce interference effects ## Footnote 12 hours of sleep reduced both proactive and retroactive interference compared to a control group who remained awake for 12 hours

Answer 146

Students could be encouraged to get enough sleep to aid recall of information ## Footnote Adequate sleep may enhance memory retention and recall abilities

Answer 147

Recall improved when participants were given cues about category names ## Footnote Recall for the first list was about 70% but fell after additional lists were learned, yet rose again to about 70% with category cues

Answer 148

Interference theory is too simplistic and does not account for all examples of forgetting ## Footnote Forgetting may need to be considered in a more holistic way

Answer 149

Lab conditions with artificial tasks, such as learning lists of words ## Footnote These setups are designed to maximize interference and forgetting

Answer 150

Information is not normally learned and recalled in the same way as in studies ## Footnote Participants may learn one list and then another shortly after, which is not typical in real life

Answer 151

A form of forgetting that occurs when there are not the necessary cues to access memory. ## Footnote The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.

Answer 152

Occurs when the environment during recall is different from the environment a person was in when learning occurred. ## Footnote This can lead to forgetting information that was learned in a specific context.

Answer 153

Occurs when a person's mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood they were in when they were learning. ## Footnote This can affect the ability to recall memories associated with a specific emotional state.

Answer 154

A 'trigger' of information that allows a person to access a memory. ## Footnote Cues may be meaningful or indirectly linked, encoded at the time of learning.

Answer 155

Forgetting in long-term memory is due to a lack of access to a memory, rather than the availability of a memory. ## Footnote This principle indicates that better recall occurs when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.

Answer 156

* External cues * Internal cues ## Footnote External cues may include environmental factors like temperature, while internal cues may include mood states.

Answer 157

The chances of forgetting the memory will be decreased. ## Footnote Similarity in context and state aids in memory recall.

Answer 158

Tulving. ## Footnote Tulving's work emphasizes the importance of context in memory retrieval.

Answer 159

[insufficient cues]

Answer 160

Insufficient cues. ## Footnote This includes both external and internal cues that were present during the encoding of the memory.

Answer 161

To investigate context-dependent forgetting ## Footnote Context-dependent forgetting refers to the phenomenon where recall is influenced by the environment in which learning occurred.

Answer 162

* Land - Land * Land - Underwater * Underwater - Land * Underwater - Underwater ## Footnote Each condition varied between the environment of learning and recall.

Answer 163

In conditions 2 and 3, recall was 40% lower than in matched conditions (1 and 4) ## Footnote This indicates that matching learning and recall contexts improves memory performance.

Answer 164

People are more likely to forget information if external cues at learning are not available at recall ## Footnote This supports the theory of context-dependent forgetting.

Answer 165

Participants recalled material less well when tested by an unfamiliar teacher in an unfamiliar room ## Footnote This further supports the concept of context-dependent forgetting.

Answer 166

Forgetting occurs when an individual's internal environment differs at recall compared to when information was learned ## Footnote An example is forgetting information learned while sober when trying to recall it while drunk.

Answer 167

To investigate state-dependent forgetting ## Footnote State-dependent forgetting refers to the influence of internal states on memory recall.

Answer 168

Participants learned lists of words under the influence of antihistamine drugs or in a 'normal' state ## Footnote Antihistamines are mild sedatives that can cause drowsiness.

Answer 169

* On drug - On drug * On drug - Not on drug * Not on drug - On drug * Not on drug - Not on drug ## Footnote These conditions varied between the internal state of learning and recall.

Answer 170

Performance on memory tests was significantly worse when there was a mismatch between internal states at learning and recall ## Footnote This supports the theory of state-dependent forgetting.

Answer 171

True ## Footnote Context-dependent forgetting emphasizes the role of external cues present during learning.

Answer 172

[external cues] ## Footnote External cues play a critical role in the recall process.

Answer 173

[internal environment] ## Footnote Internal states, such as mood or physiological state, impact memory retrieval.

Answer 174

Participants who were high and hit money while hitting dice were less able to recall information when high again ## Footnote This supports the concept of state-dependent forgetting.

Answer 175

Many studies are laboratory-based and the memory tasks are not like everyday memory tasks ## Footnote For example, Godden and Baddeley's (1975) study used word lists.

Answer 176

Encouraging individuals to remember where they were when they learned something ## Footnote This is a basic principle of the cognitive interview.

Answer 177

False ## Footnote Baddeley argued that contexts must be very different before an effect is seen.

Answer 178

Learning in one room and recalling in another is unlikely to produce significant forgetting ## Footnote This indicates that forgetting due to retrieval failure does not explain real-world forgetting.

Answer 179

Assumptions made about cue encoding at the time of learning ## Footnote If a cue does not produce recall, it is assumed it was not encoded.

Answer 180

Creating reconstructions of unsolved crimes ## Footnote Jogging the memory of witnesses can lead to capturing suspects.

Answer 181

The importance of context-dependent learning ## Footnote Their research supports the idea that context can affect recall.

Answer 182

shopping list ## Footnote This highlights the difference between laboratory tasks and real-life memory situations.

Answer 183

Increases the likelihood of successful recall through context-dependent learning ## Footnote Their findings complement those of Godden and Baddeley.

Answer 184

A phenomenon where recall is influenced by the state in which information was learned ## Footnote Demonstrated by Anderson and Cassaday (1998)

Answer 185

Research support ## Footnote Provides evidence for the theory

Answer 186

A situation where information cannot be accessed due to lack of appropriate cues ## Footnote Related to state-dependent forgetting

Answer 187

A stimulus that aids in the retrieval of information from memory ## Footnote Cues can be external or internal

Answer 188

[state-dependent cues]

Answer 189

* Emotional state * Environmental context * Physiological state ## Footnote These cues can enhance or hinder recall

Answer 190

False ## Footnote State-dependent factors play a significant role in forgetting

Answer 191

It demonstrated the importance of state-dependent forgetting ## Footnote Their work supports the theory of retrieval failure

Answer 192

The ability of people to remember the details of events they have observed, such as accidents and crimes. ## Footnote Accuracy can be affected by misleading information, leading questions, and anxiety.

Answer 193

Incorrect information that leads an individual to give a particular response rather than an accurate one. ## Footnote It can take forms such as leading questions and post-event discussions.

Answer 194

A question which suggests a certain answer due to its phrasing. ## Footnote Example: 'Was the knife in the accused's left hand?' suggests there was a knife.

Answer 195

Occurs when witnesses discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or others, potentially influencing the accuracy of their recall. ## Footnote This can occur after an event.

Answer 196

It can lead to incorrect responses from witnesses. ## Footnote The two types of misleading information are leading questions and post-event discussion.

Answer 197

To assess the extent to which participants' estimates of the speed of cars is influenced by leading questions.

Answer 198

45 American students watched a video of a car crash, answered a questionnaire, and were asked about the speed of the cars with manipulated verbs. ## Footnote Verbs included smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted.

Answer 199

They can suggest a particular answer and influence the witness's response. ## Footnote Example: Asking 'did you see the broken glass?' implies there was broken glass.

Answer 200

Leading questions.

Answer 201

It demonstrates how the phrasing of questions can alter a witness's perception of an event.

Answer 202

To assess the extent to which participants' estimates of the speed of cars, and subsequent memories of an event, are influenced by leading questions.

Answer 203

150 students.

Answer 204

* 'How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' * 'How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?' * Control group (not asked about speed).

Answer 205

'Did you see any broken glass?'

Answer 206

Misleading information in the form of leading questions can impact memory.

Answer 207

The wording of the question influences how participants decide to answer, not their actual memories.

Answer 208

The wording of a question can change the participant's memory.

Answer 209

Lacked mundane realism.

Answer 210

Emotions present during a real event, such as a car crash, are not replicated when watching a video.

Answer 211

Leading questions can significantly alter the memory recall of witnesses.

Answer 212

The study involved students who may not be experienced drivers, affecting the generalizability of the results.

Answer 213

All participants were shown the same video and given the same instructions.

Answer 214

It impacted the rating of speed and memory of glass.

Answer 215

Individuals who identify with others' moods are more affected by leading questions.

Answer 216

To ensure that police officers do not ask leading questions, enhancing memory retrieval accuracy.

Answer 217

Misleading information added to a memory after the event due to discussions with other witnesses or media.

Answer 218

post-event discussion

Answer 219

Findings have led to strategies in the police force that improve the accuracy of memory retrieval.

Answer 220

To investigate the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of EWT ## Footnote EWT stands for eyewitness testimony.

Answer 221

60 students from the University of Aberdeen and 60 older adults ## Footnote Participants were recruited from a local community.

Answer 222

A video of a girl stealing money from a wallet filmed from different points of view.

Answer 223

Control group and co-witness group.

Answer 224

The control group was tested individually, while the co-witness group discussed the event together.

Answer 225

The powerful effect this can have on the accuracy of EWT.

Answer 226

It lacked mundane realism.

Answer 227

The extent to which the study reflects real-life situations.

Answer 228

The study included two different populations: students and older adults.

Answer 229

The only thing impacting the DV was the IV, confirming the effect of post-event discussion.

Answer 230

They may have low external validity.

Answer 231

Many answers are the result of demand characteristics.

Answer 232

Misleading information ## Footnote Eyewitnesses are often inaccurate due to the influence of misleading information.

Answer 233

Older adults, particularly those over 55 ## Footnote Participants aged 35-45 may also be more susceptible compared to younger individuals.

Answer 234

More care should be taken ## Footnote This is to minimize the effects of misleading information on their recall.

Answer 235

They know their answers will not have significant consequences ## Footnote This lack of repercussions can lead to undesirable behaviors.

Answer 236

Potential psychological harm to participants ## Footnote For example, including participants who have experienced traumatic events may invalidate the data.

Answer 237

Leading questions can alter recall ## Footnote This highlights the impact of suggestive questioning on eyewitness memory.

Answer 238

The phenomenon where anxiety distracts attention from other details ## Footnote This can lead to poorer recall of events.

Answer 239

normal ## Footnote Anxiety can lead to negative impacts on memory retrieval.

Answer 240

Participants may change their answers based on expectations ## Footnote This can occur when they feel pressured to conform to perceived correct answers.

Answer 241

False ## Footnote Participants usually trust that researchers are providing accurate information.

Answer 242

Discussion after an event that can lead to contamination of memories ## Footnote It can cause witnesses to blend their memories with those of others.

Answer 243

Co-witnesses can influence each other's recall ## Footnote This can lead to inaccuracies in what individuals remember.

Answer 244

A state of emotional and physical arousal that includes worried thoughts and feelings of tension, with physical changes like increased heart rate and sweatiness.

Answer 245

A phenomenon where anxiety caused by witnessing a weapon focuses attention on the weapon, reducing the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).

Answer 246

Anxiety can have both positive and negative effects on the accuracy and detail of EWT.

Answer 247

To see whether the presence of a weapon impacts the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 248

Participants waited in a reception area and overheard an argument. They were then exposed to either a 'no-weapon' condition with a pen or a 'weapon' condition with a bloodied letter opener.

Answer 249

Participants in the 'no-weapon' condition identified the target 49% of the time, while those in the 'weapon' condition identified the target 33% of the time.

Answer 250

Participants exposed to the weapon had higher anxiety levels and focused on the weapon rather than the perpetrator's face, reducing the accuracy of EWT.

Answer 251

[stressful situations]

Answer 252

* Increased heart rate * Sweatiness

Answer 253

* No-weapon condition * Weapon condition

Answer 254

Worried thoughts and feelings of tension.

Answer 255

To see whether the presence of a weapon impacts the accuracy of EWT

Answer 256

13 out of 21 witnesses agreed to participate

Answer 257

4-5 months after the incident

Answer 258

By the number of details correctly reported in each interview

Answer 259

A 7-point scale

Answer 260

Anxiety can improve the accuracy of EWT

Answer 261

Deffenbacher

Answer 262

The relationship looks like an inverted-U

Answer 263

Memory becomes more accurate until an optimal level of anxiety is reached

Answer 264

Their recall accuracy decreases

Answer 265

They only compare high and low anxiety groups

Answer 266

Hurricane Andrew

Answer 267

The level of damage to homes and the level of recall experienced

Answer 268

There is support that participants from the ed position affect accuracy

Answer 269

It suggests that cognitive performance improves with moderate anxiety but declines with excessive anxiety

Answer 270

In terms of the amount of damage participants suffered to their homes ## Footnote Participants were categorized as having no damage (low anxiety), little damage (moderate anxiety), or significant damage (high anxiety)

Answer 271

The inverted-U hypothesis ## Footnote This hypothesis suggests that there is an optimal level of anxiety for maximum recall ability

Answer 272

Anxiety from viewing emotionally negative events led to fewer recalled details ## Footnote Participants witnessing emotionally neutral events recalled more details

Answer 273

Lack of control over discussions and external influences ## Footnote For example, in Yuille and Cutshall's study, witnesses may exaggerate or create false memories

Answer 274

Physiological aspects of anxiety ## Footnote It does not consider the cognitive components of anxiety

Answer 275

A more holistic approach ## Footnote This would consider the complexity of anxiety beyond just physiological changes

Answer 276

Identification was least accurate in high surprise conditions rather than high threat conditions ## Footnote This suggests that surprise, not anxiety, may influence the weapon focus effect

Answer 277

It helps determine the credibility of a witness ## Footnote Understanding that there is an optimal level of anxiety for maximum accuracy is crucial for questioning strategies

Answer 278

False ## Footnote The hypothesis indicates there is an optimal level of anxiety for maximum recall

Answer 279

A psychological state characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts, and physical changes like increased blood pressure.

Answer 280

Anxiety can both impair and enhance EWT accuracy depending on the level of anxiety experienced.

Answer 281

The phenomenon where the presence of a weapon in a crime scene distracts witnesses, reducing their ability to recall other details.

Answer 282

Anxiety can increase accuracy under certain conditions, but it can also decrease it if too high.

Answer 283

A theory suggesting that there is an optimal level of anxiety that maximizes performance, while too little or too much anxiety hampers it.

Answer 284

It can subject participants to psychological harm for research purposes.

Answer 285

Real-life studies where psychologists interview individuals who have already witnessed an event.

Answer 286

[weapon focus]

Answer 287

It can cause psychological harm and distress, especially when asking participants to relive traumatic experiences.

Answer 288

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories ## Footnote It uses four main techniques based on well-established psychological knowledge of human memory.

Answer 289

Negative impacts include: * Regular jumps between memory modalities * Event recall in a non-chronological order * False memories due to leading questions ## Footnote These issues can hinder the accuracy of eyewitness recall of crimes.

Answer 290

To achieve more detailed and accurate eyewitness testimony (EWT) ## Footnote This is done by integrating effective memory recall techniques.

Answer 291

Mentally visualize yourself back in the setting of the incident ## Footnote This helps to create a conducive environment for memory retrieval.

Answer 292

Report all details from start to finish, even if it seems irrelevant ## Footnote This encourages comprehensive recall.

Answer 293

Recall the incident backwards and forward in time ## Footnote This technique helps in accessing different aspects of the memory.

Answer 294

Changed perspective ## Footnote This involves imagining the incident from different viewpoints.

Answer 295

True ## Footnote The interviewer avoids personal comments to help the witness feel relaxed.

Answer 296

[retrieval cues] ## Footnote This is essential for cueing retrieval of accurate information from memory.

Answer 297

Report everything ## Footnote Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail, no matter how trivial.

Answer 298

They may highlight overlooked important information or trigger other memories ## Footnote Trivial details can act as cues for recall.

Answer 299

Returning to the crime scene mentally and imagining the environment and emotions ## Footnote This links to context- and state-dependent forgetting.

Answer 300

Change perspective ## Footnote Witnesses recall the incident from other people's viewpoints.

Answer 301

It helps verify accuracy and prevents expectation-based reporting ## Footnote It can also reveal dishonesty.

Answer 302

The CI produced more accurate, detailed memories than standard police interviews ## Footnote Effectiveness may depend on the time delay between the event and the interview.

Answer 303

When used shortly after a crime ## Footnote Long delays decrease its effectiveness.

Answer 304

An 81% increase in correct information, but a 61% increase in incorrect information ## Footnote This suggests cautious use of the CI.

Answer 305

Each individual element is valuable, but some combinations are more effective ## Footnote 'Report everything' and 'context reinstatement' produced the best recall.

Answer 306

Training is needed for effective use ## Footnote Ensuring trained personnel can enhance the effectiveness of the CI.

Answer 307

False ## Footnote Its effectiveness decreases with longer time delays.

Answer 308

inaccurate ## Footnote This highlights the need for careful application of the technique.

Answer 309

Calls for it to be used more widely by other organisations ## Footnote This includes solicitor firms using Cl techniques to remember key facts in cases.

Answer 310

It is time-consuming to carry out ## Footnote More time is needed to establish rapport with the witness and allow them to relax.

Answer 311

To ensure they are utilising it correctly ## Footnote In times of public spending cuts, this might not be a resource the police will invest in.

Answer 312

Older participants ## Footnote The Cl produced significantly more information for older adults, as they may feel more comfortable relaying details.

Answer 313

Many variations of it are used ## Footnote Different police forces may use different components, making it hard to determine which are effective.

Answer 314

Fisher et al. (1987) ## Footnote They added elements to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction.

Answer 315

Reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly, and asking open-ended questions ## Footnote These elements help create a more conducive environment for recalling details.

Answer 316

Removed the 'change perspective' component ## Footnote Children are seen as being too young to empathise with others.

Answer 317

It produced more accurate detail compared to the Cl technique ## Footnote This was especially true for personal details and was greater if the ECI took place one week later.

Answer 318

The timing of when an interview is conducted is vital to its success. ## Footnote This implies that strategic planning regarding the interview schedule can enhance the quality of the information obtained.

Answer 319

They refer to different methods or approaches used in interviews that can enhance detail accuracy. ## Footnote The context suggests that these terms are shorthand for specific interviewing techniques.

Answer 320

'Climprove' enhances the accuracy of EWT (Eyewitness Testimony). ## Footnote This indicates that using improved interviewing techniques can lead to more reliable eyewitness accounts.

Answer 321

False. ## Footnote The text suggests that different methods significantly impact the accuracy of details.

Answer 322

[timing] ## Footnote This emphasizes the importance of when the interview occurs in relation to the events being discussed.