Memory encoding Flashcards
What is episodic memory?
‘Source’ or contextual information: time + location, what we were thinking
Relations(associations) of details = people + time + location
A one‐shot memory
What is semantic memory?
Facts
How is episodic memory tested in the lab?
Uncapher and Rugg (2009)
Study phase = encoding new events
Testing phase = retrieving these events
What are the stages of memory?
Encoding = neuroimaging measures
Storage
Retrieval
Bhvral measures can test this
What is divided memory?
Dividing attention during encoding = impairs memory i.e if you do
something else at the same time you will not learn much!
DA = divided attention
DA-Enc = divided attention during encoding
DA-Ret = divided attention during retrieval
Craig et al. (1996) = reaction decreased
What is amnesia?
Damage to bilateral hippocampus causes classical amnesiaSevere impairment of new memory encoding and consolidation
–e.g. patient H.M.
How is the hippocampus linked to learning?
fMRI scanning when attending to colour or location
Attention-boosted source memory for the attended feature
Hippocampus activated more when people encoded the attended features
Consistent with effects of amnesia
Hippocampus essential for binding items + context to create memories = further suggests attention may input to hippocampus
How is pictures linked to memory?
Easy to remember = picture + mentally imageable words + concrete words (refers to objects)
What is Dual Code Theory, and how is this an explanation of why pictures are easier to remember?
Paivio’s (1971) Dual Code Theory = an image plus a verbal code
produces a richer memory trace
How is distinctiveness linked to remembering pictures?
The Von Restoroff (1933) (isolation) effect = memory boost from processing difference in the context of similarity (Hunt 2013)
What is the link between distinctiveness and picture superiority?
Ensor, Suprenant & Neath (2019) abolished the picture superiority
effect by making the words more distinctive using colour & fonts
What are the predictors of memorability?
Borkin et al. (2013) = continuous recognition task
Asked if they had seen images from a textbook
Most = colour
middle = no known objects
least = scientific figures
What does Bower et al. (1975) show?
People asked to re‐draw “droodles”
Free recall was much better once the ‘story’ was known
Understanding assumed to reflect prior knowledge schemas
See also Bransford & Johnson, 1972
How is schema related to memory encoding?
Van Kesteren, Rijpkema et al. (2013) = Studied new facts within degree course
Related (existing schema) = previous year’s content
Or unrelated (no schema) = previous year’s content
Results = Memory better for course‐related (schema) information 24 hrs later
What areas of the brain were used in the University study?
van Kesteren et al. (2014) = fMRI while encoding new facts
Schema‐related facts:
Activated the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) more
Activated the medial temporal lobe (MTL) less (includes hippocampus)
Medial PFC schema‐related activation = predicted Y2 course performance
The shift from hippocampus to the medial prefrontal cortex
Does schemas and prediction make distinctiveness?
Prediction error/ distinctiveness effect – unexpected objects also better remembered than neutral
Schemaeffect – expected objects better remembered than neutral objects
Quent, Greve & Henson (2022) and SLIMM model by van Kesteren et al. (2012)
What are the levels processing
Craik & Lockhart (1972) = baker-Baker paradox
Processing for meaning often helps memory encoding
– ‘Deep’ processing (DRAGON answer in pre‐test!)
– BUT idea of ‘depth’ doesn’t = no why or when this semantic processing will help
What is the depth of precessing in the brain?
Brain regions like the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (A: VLPFC) are activated by semantics vs phonological processing
Also activated when words are successfully encoded into memory
Wagner et al. (1998) and Kim (2011) meta‐analysis
Is the levels of processing theory correct/
Yes, but it’s not just about ‘deep’ semantic processing helping.
Multiple other processes and cortical regions also contribute to
episodic memory encoding
The cortical regions = in encoding change when the ongoing
task changes (Otten & Rugg, 2001).
Levels of Processing theory = stated that encoding is a byproduct of ongoing processing
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex and memory?
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) damage ≠ cause frank amnesia = difficulties with memory control
–E.g. patients do not organise the material to be remembered (Gershberg & Shimamura, 1995)
Dorsolateral PFC = Organisation in encoding (and executive
functions like information updating)
Ventrolateral PFC = Semantic encoding(and semantic control functions)
Describe memory strategy in the brain
Activating dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during encoding
= greater organisation of later recall by meaning (semantic clustering)
Hippocampusengaged more at the same time (Long et al., 2010)
Can distinctiveness be used as a strategy?
fMRI study
Faces were more likely to be recollected if people judged their
distinctiveness (taxi driver)
Compare with judging similarity (casting director)
When encoding memories, strategic processing for distinctiveness boosted activation of the hippocampus [NB only looked at hippocampus]
Carr, Engel, Knowlton (2013); Many studies (see Hunt, 2013)
Describe elaboration as a strategy
Any semantic processing = relating new material to your prior knowledge
Meaningful mental imagery linking unrelated pieces of information boosts memory (Reed, 1918)
Important to relate new to known materia
What is a summary of memory encoding?
Forming new memories – encoding – is not just about the memorability of the material
The way we actively process information is critical
Involves many cortical brain regions = prefrontal cortex + hippocampus
Memory encoding as a byproduct of processing
What are the strategies to memory encode
Attending what you want to remember
mental imagery
processing meaning
processing material = distinctiveness
organising material mental
multiple cortical regions boost encoding by the hippocampus
