Memory encoding

Question 1

What is episodic memory?

Answer 1

‘Source’ or contextual information: time + location, what we were thinking

Relations(associations) of details = people + time + location

A one‐shot memory

Question 2

What is semantic memory?

Answer 2

Facts

Question 3

How is episodic memory tested in the lab?

Answer 3

Uncapher and Rugg (2009)

Study phase = encoding new events
Testing phase = retrieving these events

Question 4

What are the stages of memory?

Answer 4

Encoding = neuroimaging measures
Storage
Retrieval
Bhvral measures can test this

Question 5

What is divided memory?

Answer 5

Dividing attention during encoding = impairs memory i.e if you do
something else at the same time you will not learn much!

DA = divided attention
DA-Enc = divided attention during encoding
DA-Ret = divided attention during retrieval

Craig et al. (1996) = reaction decreased

Question 6

What is amnesia?

Answer 6

Damage to bilateral hippocampus causes classical amnesiaSevere impairment of new memory encoding and consolidation
–e.g. patient H.M.

Question 7

How is the hippocampus linked to learning?

Answer 7

fMRI scanning when attending to colour or location
Attention-boosted source memory for the attended feature
Hippocampus activated more when people encoded the attended features

Consistent with effects of amnesia
Hippocampus essential for binding items + context to create memories = further suggests attention may input to hippocampus

Question 8

How is pictures linked to memory?

Answer 8

Easy to remember = picture + mentally imageable words + concrete words (refers to objects)

Question 9

What is Dual Code Theory, and how is this an explanation of why pictures are easier to remember?

Answer 9

Paivio’s (1971) Dual Code Theory = an image plus a verbal code
produces a richer memory trace

Question 10

How is distinctiveness linked to remembering pictures?

Answer 10

The Von Restoroff (1933) (isolation) effect = memory boost from processing difference in the context of similarity (Hunt 2013)

Question 11

What is the link between distinctiveness and picture superiority?

Answer 11

Ensor, Suprenant & Neath (2019) abolished the picture superiority
effect by making the words more distinctive using colour & fonts

Question 12

What are the predictors of memorability?

Answer 12

Borkin et al. (2013) = continuous recognition task
Asked if they had seen images from a textbook
Most = colour
middle = no known objects
least = scientific figures

Question 13

What does Bower et al. (1975) show?

Answer 13

People asked to re‐draw “droodles”

Free recall was much better once the ‘story’ was known
Understanding assumed to reflect prior knowledge schemas
See also Bransford & Johnson, 1972

Question 14

How is schema related to memory encoding?

Answer 14

Van Kesteren, Rijpkema et al. (2013) = Studied new facts within degree course

Related (existing schema) = previous year’s content
Or unrelated (no schema) = previous year’s content

Results = Memory better for course‐related (schema) information 24 hrs later

Question 15

What areas of the brain were used in the University study?

Answer 15

van Kesteren et al. (2014) = fMRI while encoding new facts

Schema‐related facts:
Activated the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) more

Activated the medial temporal lobe (MTL) less (includes hippocampus)

Medial PFC schema‐related activation = predicted Y2 course performance

The shift from hippocampus to the medial prefrontal cortex

Question 16

Does schemas and prediction make distinctiveness?

Answer 16

Prediction error/ distinctiveness effect – unexpected objects also better remembered than neutral

Schemaeffect – expected objects better remembered than neutral objects

Quent, Greve & Henson (2022) and SLIMM model by van Kesteren et al. (2012)

Question 17

What are the levels processing

Answer 17

Craik & Lockhart (1972) = baker-Baker paradox

Processing for meaning often helps memory encoding
– ‘Deep’ processing (DRAGON answer in pre‐test!)
– BUT idea of ‘depth’ doesn’t = no why or when this semantic processing will help

Question 18

What is the depth of precessing in the brain?

Answer 18

Brain regions like the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (A: VLPFC) are activated by semantics vs phonological processing

Also activated when words are successfully encoded into memory

Wagner et al. (1998) and Kim (2011) meta‐analysis

Question 19

Is the levels of processing theory correct/

Answer 19

Yes, but it’s not just about ‘deep’ semantic processing helping.

Multiple other processes and cortical regions also contribute to
episodic memory encoding

The cortical regions = in encoding change when the ongoing
task changes (Otten & Rugg, 2001).

Levels of Processing theory = stated that encoding is a byproduct of ongoing processing

Question 20

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex and memory?

Answer 20

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) damage ≠ cause frank amnesia = difficulties with memory control
–E.g. patients do not organise the material to be remembered (Gershberg & Shimamura, 1995)

Dorsolateral PFC = Organisation in encoding (and executive
functions like information updating)

Ventrolateral PFC = Semantic encoding(and semantic control functions)

Question 21

Describe memory strategy in the brain

Answer 21

Activating dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during encoding
= greater organisation of later recall by meaning (semantic clustering)

Hippocampusengaged more at the same time (Long et al., 2010)

Question 22

Can distinctiveness be used as a strategy?

Answer 22

fMRI study
Faces were more likely to be recollected if people judged their
distinctiveness (taxi driver)

Compare with judging similarity (casting director)

When encoding memories, strategic processing for distinctiveness boosted activation of the hippocampus [NB only looked at hippocampus]

Carr, Engel, Knowlton (2013); Many studies (see Hunt, 2013)

Question 23

Describe elaboration as a strategy

Answer 23

Any semantic processing = relating new material to your prior knowledge

Meaningful mental imagery linking unrelated pieces of information boosts memory (Reed, 1918)

Important to relate new to known materia

Question 24

What is a summary of memory encoding?

Answer 24

Forming new memories – encoding – is not just about the memorability of the material

The way we actively process information is critical

Involves many cortical brain regions = prefrontal cortex + hippocampus

Memory encoding as a byproduct of processing

Question 25

What are the strategies to memory encode

Answer 25

Attending what you want to remember
mental imagery
processing meaning
processing material = distinctiveness
organising material mental

multiple cortical regions boost encoding by the hippocampus