Hacking memory Flashcards
What does Putnam et al. (2016) say about laptops
recommended not using laptop = remember things better
What is the research supporting Putnam et al. (2016)
Students multitasking on a laptop during class learn less = 11% in one study. May also affect comprehension of students near you
Sana, Weston and Cepeda (2013)
Taking notes on a laptop = faster, encourages verbatim
notes than summary = reduce depth of processing (Mueller & Oppenheimer (2014)
BUT less clear cut in replication + mini meta-analysis Urry et al. (2021)
+ ways to use a laptop well – blog by a student who has dysgraphia, Martin Winter
What is note-taking for?
Promote deep + elaborative encoding of the material
Provide external storage of info in the lecture, not in the slides
Processing + adding this surrounding material = help elaborative encoding
Good notes can also support later study and revision
What is elaboration?
Actively relating incoming material to existing knowledge = Usually implies a deliberate strategy
Elaborative interrogation = Generating an explanation for why
an explicitly stated fact or concept is true = less chunky than keyword
Self-explanation = Explaining how new information is related
to known information, or explaining steps taken during
problem solving
Keyword mnemonic = Using keywords and mental imagery to
associate verbal materials
What is keyword mnemonic?
Richmond et al. (2011)
How to learn the word hippocampus
Keyword mnemonic: hippo + campus
A hippo visits her old Uni campus, this brings back lots of memories
Helped higher-order thinking + recall on MCQ by Psych students
What does Dunlosky et al show about elaborative interrogation?
Elaboration depends on prior knowledge
van Kestern et al. (2013) = fMRI study of schema effects on learning at Uni = hippocampus + medialPrefrontal Cortex
Explain schemas in education - van Kesteren et al. (2018)
Model of generalisation of learning
Encoded new picture-word pairs (AB) + test pairs (AB), encode new pair (AC) where relatedness of B to C varies
Recognise C, cued recall B-C, recognise A
What were the results of Schemas in education: van Kesteren et al. (2018)?
Associative memory for the inferred B-C pairing was better when = schema-congruent + subjective reactivation of the B picture during A-C learning was stronger
People’s judgements of what they would remember (metamemory) depended on reactivation but not schemas
Partially accurate but people underestimated the importance of prior knowledge
Replicated in 2 experiments w/ students using materials based on courses = helps with generalisations (marsh and sink, 2009: slides)
What are the limits of improving encoding?
Keyword mnemonic = work + needs suitable material – as do other elaboration strategies
Elaborative interrogation effects are often larger w/ =
precise elaborations, higher prior knowledge + self-generated
(Dunlosky et al., 2013)
In line with distinctiveness* effects on encoding = imagery + schemas think it is fundamental
BUT surprisingly (to many in 2013) not very effective for long-term learning
Can memory cues help?
Elaboration while studying can add to the potential cues to retrieve something
You also generate your own cues when studying
What are self-generated cues?
Tullis & Finley (2018)
Cues = connect w/ your personal knowledge + cognitive context, e.g. sport – or not!
Likely to overlap more than other people’s cues w/ your
personal cognitive context at retrieval
On the transfer-appropriate processing principle, you will remember the material better
Ma also enhance the testing effect
* And: self-generated cues may be more diagnostic*, i.e., point
to fewer potential targets in memory = form of distinctiveness
What does Roedier and Karpicke (2006) show?
Memory for ‘ideas units’ in prose passages
* How much less forgetting at 1 week with testing?
* 10% forgetting (STTT) instead of 52% (SSSS)
What does Thomas et al. (2020) show?
N = 54
Schedule
Lecture then quick then quick w/ feedback
After 4 classes = block exam (repeated 2x)
Repeat for each other the 3 blocks = all students swapped into each test format
final exam
What was the results of Thomas et al. (2020)?
Analysis = Transfer of learning to related concepts + Transfer of learning to different test forma
Conceptually related MCQs = quizzing (ie testing) better
than studying (but quiz w/ feedback not better than quiz without)
Conceptually related short answers (different format) = Quizzing (ie testing) better than studying (but quiz with feedback not better than quiz without)
Supports idea testing aids concept development + generalisation from leaning episode (semantic) + memory for instances (episodic)
What is the worst revision? Dunlosky, Rawson, Nathan & Willingham (2013)
Summarisation (written)
– Imagery for text
– Re-reading
