Memory and Memory Systems

Question 1

What is memory

Answer 1

Knowledge that is stored in the brain, and to the processes of encoding, consolidating, storing and retrieving such knowledge

Question 2

What aspects are included in the processing approach to memory

Answer 2

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Question 3

What is encoding

Answer 3

Entering the information int the system

Question 4

What is storage

Answer 4

Retains memories over time

Question 5

What is retrieval

Answer 5

Finding and recovering stored memories

Question 6

Describe the multi-store model of memory

Answer 6

Sensory memory -> short term memory -> long term memory

Question 7

What is displacement

Answer 7

When information is replaced by more relevant information

Question 8

What is the amygdala responsible for

Answer 8

Emotional processing

Question 9

Describe sensory memory

Answer 9

Retains impressions of sensory information after exposure to original stimuli. Act as a sensory buffer for stimuli experienced through 5 senses (via sense organs and primary sensory cortices). Information is ignored or processes depending on the relevance (meaningful assembly before moving to the next stage)

Question 10

What is iconic memory

Answer 10

Early, fast, automatic storage of visual forms (under 1 second)

Question 11

What is echoic memory

Answer 11

Early, fast, automatic storage of auditory information (up to 4 seconds)

Question 12

What is hepatic memory

Answer 12

(touch, sensation), smell and memory (olfactory bulb)

Question 13

Describe short term memory

Answer 13

Memory information currently held “in mind”- temporary recall. Limited capacity- most adults can store between 5-9 items (Miller (1956) the magic number 7 + 2). Limited duration (~20 seconds)- storage is fragile information can be lost by decay or interference. Information is lost due to decay, displacement, interference

Question 14

What is a method that increases STM

Answer 14

Chunking

Question 15

What are the components of working memory

Answer 15

Phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad, central executive, episodic buffer (introduced in 2000)

Question 16

Describe working memory

Answer 16

Working memory is a system that allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of information to allow for reasoning, learning and comprehension. A mental “workspace” linked to attention which provides a basis for conscious thought and the organisation of behaviour

Question 17

What is the phonological loop

Answer 17

Temporary storage and rehearsal of speech-like formation

Question 18

What is the visuo-spatial sketch pad

Answer 18

Temporary holding and manipulation of visual images

Question 19

What is the central executive

Answer 19

controls the whole system, allocates data to the subsystems (visuo-spatial sketch pad and phonological loop), plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks

Question 20

Where s the central executive located

Answer 20

In the prefrontal cortex

Question 21

What is the episodic buffer

Answer 21

Provides a connection between different structures making it crucial for memory. The central executive has been linked to the prefrontal cortex

Question 22

Describe long term memory

Answer 22

A system (or systems) assumed to underpin capacity to store information over long periods of time

Question 23

What is consolidation

Answer 23

Processes that alter newly stored and still liable information so as to make it more stable for long term storage- takes a long time, involves rehearsal and meaningful association

Question 24

What is storage

Answer 24

Process of creating a relatively permanent “memory trace” in the brain

Question 25

What is long term potentiation

Answer 25

Strengthening of neural networks with repeated use

Question 26

What is direct/ implicit retrieval

Answer 26

Process of deliberately searching for and recovering target memory ‘trace’ in response to a cue, bringing target into conscious awareness (explicit recall or recognition); explicit memory retrieval critically dependent on working memory- central executive retrieves relevant information from long-term memory and inhibits irrelevant information

Question 27

What is indirect/ implicit retrieval

Answer 27

Process of recovering target memory ‘trace’ without conscious remembering demonstrated by e.g. improvements in skilled task performance or changes in behaviour based on experience; fundamental distinction between declarative ‘explicit’ and non-declarative ‘implicit’ memory.

Question 28

What are the two main varieties of LTM

Answer 28

Explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory

Question 29

What is amnesia

Answer 29

Disorder of memory with preserved intellect and perception, severe forgetfulness. In amnesia the ability to retain information is affected but intellect remains intact

Question 30

What is anterograde amnesia

Answer 30

A problem encoding, storing or retrieving new information

Question 31

What is reterograde amnesia

Answer 31

A problem remembering events that occurred in the past

Question 32

What are the causes of amnesia

Answer 32

Temporal lobe surgery: individuals become amnesic as a result of deliberate surgical procedures. (E.g. H.M). Herpes simplex encephalitis: a virus of the brain which can leave individuals severely amnesic. Very rare. (E.g. Clive Wearing). Anoxia/hypoxia: reduction in oxygen supply to the brain (E.g. perinatal hypoxia as cause of developmental amnesia (Jon)). Korsakoff syndrome: usually from chronic alcoholism, mainly characterised by a memory impairment. Alzheimer’s disease (AD): most common cause of amnesia. Not a pure form of amnesia because usually complicated by additional symptoms of dementia

Question 33

Describe HM (Henry Molaison)

Answer 33

Epileptic seizures from age of 10, quality of life extremely poor, surgery in 1953 (aged 27). Surgical removal of medial temporal lobes, including hippocampus and adjacent cortical regions (bilateral medial temporal lobectomy). After surgery: Good news –no more seizures; bad news –profound forgetfulness. Immediately showed a severe anterograde amnesia that persisted for the rest of his life. Studied from 1953 until his death in 2008, aged 82. Described his state as “like waking from a dream … every day is alone in itself”

Question 34

What does the fact that HM is able to learn new skills mean

Answer 34

His procedural memory is intact

Question 35

What is hippocampal amnesia

Answer 35

Impairs explicit or declarative memory (new conscious memories for facts and events), but spares multiple forms of implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Question 36

What is Ribot’s law

Answer 36

Sparing of remote memory and impairment of recent memory. In the early stages you remember you have children but focus on them from years ago. Medial temporal cannot be ultimate storage site for LTM

Question 37

What are the aspects of declarative memory

Answer 37

Episodic and semantic

Question 38

Describe episodic memory and brain regions involved

Answer 38

Personal episodes in time and space. Hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, neocortex

Question 39

Describe semantic memory and brain regions involved

Answer 39

Facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge about the external world. Lateral and anterior temporal cortex, prefrontal cortex

Question 40

What are the aspects of non-declarative memory

Answer 40

Procedural, priming and perceptual learning, simple classical conditioning, non-associative learning

Question 41

Describe procedural memory and brain regions involved

Answer 41

Skills and habit. Striatum, cerebellum, motor cortex

Question 42

What brain regions are involved in priming and procedural memory

Answer 42

Neocortex

Question 43

What brain regions are involved in simple classical conditioning

Answer 43

Amygdala and cerebellum

Question 44

What brain regions are involved in non-associative learning

Answer 44

Reflex pathways

Question 45

An experimental task requires participants to observe a sequence of taps performed by the experimenter to nine cubical blocks positioned randomly in front of the participant, and to repeat the sequence of taps to the blocks. What component of working memory is being assessed

Answer 45

Visuospatial. The test is referred to as a Corsi block tapping test and is widely used to assess visuospatial working memory. Only the examiner can view the number assigned to each block

Question 46

A 75-year-old male presents to a memory clinic. He is unable to name the capital of France and the current prime minister of the UK. What type of memory is most likely to be affected

Answer 46

Semantic. Semantic memory is a form of declarative long-term memory that involves facts and information about the world (general knowledge), the meaning of words, the sounds of letters and concepts that are not dependent upon personal experience

Question 47

: A 65-year-old female presents with disorientation to name an inability to remember personal events that took prior to a traumatic experience. There is no organic cause to account for these symptoms. What term best described this type of memory loss

Answer 47

Psychogenic. Also known as dissociative amnesia, usually follows after exposure to an extreme stressor or traumatic event. This can lead to retrograde memory loss for information just prior to event, and in severe cases orientation to name can also be affected (forgetting one’s own name, age, address). It is psychogenic as there is no organic cause

Question 48

A 55-year-old male presents with severe anterograde amnesia but is able to learn a new motor skill. Which regions are most likely responsible for this ability

Answer 48

Striatum and Cerebellum. The cerebellum has been found to be important in procedural memory, along with the striatum (part of the basal ganglia) and motor cortex

Question 49

: A 45-year-old female presents with autobiographical memory impairment, specifically in relation to recalling personal events and experiences, and an inability to form new memories. Which region is most likely to have been damaged leading to the symptoms described

Answer 49

Hippocampus. Damage to the hippocampus has been found to impair episodic memory in amnesic patients. The hippocampus also plays an important role in the transferring of information to other cortical areas for future retrieval