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Introduction to Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Memory

A
  • An information processing system

* Set of processes used to encode, store and retrieve information over different different periods of time

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2
Q

Encoding

A
  • Input of information into the memory system
  • Upon receiving sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it
  • Organise the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts
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3
Q

Automatic Processing

A

•Usually done without any conscious awareness

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4
Q

Effortful Processing

A

•Requires alot of work and attention on your part in order to encode the information

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5
Q

Semantic Encoding

A

•Refers to the encoding of words and their meaning; first demonstrated by William Bousfield

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6
Q

Visual Encoding

A
  • Refers to the encoding of images
  • Ability to recall images (mentally) more easily than words alone
  • High-imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically, thus building a stronger memory
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7
Q

Acoustic Encoding

A

•Refers to the encoding of sounds, and words in particular

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8
Q

Self-reference Effect

A

•The tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal preference

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9
Q

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

A

•Came out with a human memory, called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S); based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information

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10
Q

Storage

A
  • The creation of a permanent record of information

* 3 stages – sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

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11
Q

Sensory Memory

A
  • Storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes
  • A very brief storage of up to a couple of seconds
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12
Q

Short-term Memory (STM)

A
  • A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
  • Lasts about 20 seconds
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13
Q

Long-term Memory (LTM)

A
  • Continuous storage of information; storage capacity has no limits
  • Divided into two terms – explicit and implicit
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14
Q

Explicit (declarative) Memories

Episodic (experienced events)

Semantic (knowledge and concepts)

A
  • Explicit – memories that we consciously try to remember and recall
  • Episodic – information about events we have personally experienced; involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity
  • Semantic – knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts
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15
Q

Implicit (non-declarative)

Procedural (skills and actions)

Emotional Conditioning

A
  • Implicit – memories that are not part of our consciousness; formed from behaviors
  • Procedural – it stores information about how to do things; aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.
  • Emotional Conditioning – storage of information about the emotional significance of events
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16
Q

Definition of Retrieval and 3 Steps to do so

A

•The act of getting information out of memory storage and back to conscious awareness

3 ways to retrieve information:
Recall – refers to what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval; access information without cues

Recognition – happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again; process of comparison

Relearning – involves learning information that you previously learned

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17
Q

Amygdala

A
  • Regulates emotions, such as fear and aggression
  • Plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones
  • Involved in memory consolidation – the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory
  • Facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotional arousing
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18
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • Involved in normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory
  • Project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other connected memories
  • Injury to this area will result in the inability to process new declarative memories
19
Q

Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex

A
  • According to PET scans, there was much more activation in the left prefrontal cortex for the semantic tasks as compared to the perceptual task
  • Encoding was associated with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information was associated with the right frontal region
20
Q

Neurotransmitters

Arousal Theory

Flashbulb Memory

A
  • Specific neurotransmitters are involved with the process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetychlorine
  • Arousal Theory – strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories
  • Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory
  • Flashbulb Memory – an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
21
Q

Amnesia

A

•The loss of long-term memory that occurs at the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

22
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A
  • Inability to remember new information, although you are able to remember information and events that happened prior to your injury
  • Hippocampus is usually affected – damage to the brain has resulted in the inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory
  • Unable to forma episodic or semantic memories, but are still able to form new procedural memories
23
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A
  • Loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma
  • Difficulty remembering episodic memories
24
Q

Memory Construction and Reconstruction

A
  • Construction – formation of new memories

* Reconstruction – bringing up old memories

25
Q

Suggestibility

A
  • Describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
  • We are vulnerable to the power of suggestion, simply based on something we see on the news or a suggestion that someone made
26
Q

Eyewitness Misidentification

A

•When a crime victim or eyewitness mistakenly identifies someone as the perpetrator of a crime even though that person did not commit the crime

Causes:
–Limitation in human memory
–Stress and anxiety
–Suggestive police behavior
–Cross-race biases
–Focus on weapons
27
Q

Misinformation Effect, Elizabeth Loftus

A
  • After exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event
  • According to Loftus, an eyewitness’s memory of an event is very flexible due to the misinformation effect
28
Q

Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories

False Memory Syndrome

A
  • Researchers have described how whole events, not just words, can be falsely recalled, even when they did not happen
  • False Memory Syndrome – recall of false autobiographical memories; relates to memories of events that do not have independent witnesses; only witnesses to the abuse are the perpetrator and the victim
29
Q

Forgetting

A

•Refers to loss of information from long-term memory

30
Q

Encoding Failure

A
  • When memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins
  • Often in order to remember something, we must pay attention to the details and actively work to process the information, however lots of times we don’t do this
31
Q

Daniel Schacter

A

•Well-known memory researcher, offers seven ways our memories fail us; calls them the seven sins of memory and categorizes them into three groups – forgetting, distortion, and intrusion

32
Q

Transience

A
  • Type – Forgetting
  • Description – Accessibility of memory decreases over time
  • Example – Forget events that occurred long ago
33
Q

Absentmindness

A
  • Type – Forgetting
  • Description – Forgetting caused by lapses in attention
  • Example – Forget where your phone is
34
Q

Blocking

A
  • Type – Forgetting
  • Description – Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked
  • Example – Tip of the tongue
35
Q

Misattribution

A
  • Type – Distortion
  • Description – Source of memory is confused
  • Example – Recalling a dream memory as a waking memory
36
Q

Suggestibility

A
  • Type – Distortion
  • Description – False memories
  • Example – Result from leading questions
37
Q

Bias

A
  • Type – Distortion
  • Description – Memories distorted by current belief system
  • Example – Align memories to current beliefs
38
Q

Persistence

A
  • Type – Intrusion
  • Description – Inability to forget undesirable memories
  • Example – Traumatic events
39
Q

Interference

A

•When information is stored in our memory, however for some reason it is inaccessible

40
Q

Proactive Interference

A

•When old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

41
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

•Happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

42
Q

Memory-enhancing Strategies

A
  • Rehearsal – conscious repetition of information to be remembered
  • Chunking – organizing information into manageable bits or chunks
  • Elaborative Rehearsal –a technique in which you think about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge is already stored in your memory
  • Mnemonic Devices (e.g. acronym) – memory aids that help us organize information for encoding; useful for recalling larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases
  • Expressive Writing – boosts short-term memory
  • Saying words aloud
43
Q

Neurogensis

A

• The growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus, and area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning

Introduction to Psychology (16 decks)

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