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1
Q

who proposed the multi-store model

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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2
Q

what is coding capacity and duraction

A

the three variables that can be used to describe the stores that informationn passes through

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3
Q

what does coding mean

A

the way in which infomation is stored/what format things are stored in

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4
Q

what does capcity mean

A

the amount of information that can be stored

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5
Q

what does duration mean

A

the time period that information is held in store

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6
Q

what three distinct stages does memory have to pass through in order to enter the storage

A
  • sensory register
  • short term memory
  • long term memory
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7
Q

what dp Atkinson and Shriffin argue

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model of human memory is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information

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8
Q

what is the sensory register storage

A

The sensory register stores all incoming info from our senses. (registers sensory info from the outside world).The information is quickly discarded or transferred to short-term memory.

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9
Q

what is the duration/capacity of the sensory register

A

very brief duration - up to a couple of seconds.

capacity is big

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10
Q

what is stored in the sensory register

A

sensory information can be sights ,sounds, smellls and even textures. If we do not view the information as valuable we discard it and its duration is very short. IF WE VIEW IT AS VALUABEL THE IMFORMATION WILL MOVE ON INTO SHORT TERM MEMORY.

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11
Q

state the summary of the sensory register

A

duration:very quick (0.5 secounds)
capacity: large (all sensory info that we consume in their daily life)
coding: specific to each sense
sensory register has a sensory code

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12
Q

what is short term memory

A

a temporay storage system that processes incoming sensory memory

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13
Q

how long does short term memory storage last

A

20 secounds (estimated between 18 and 30 secs)

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14
Q

state the summary of short term information

A

duration: 20 secounds
capacity : 7+/- 2 items
coding: primarily acoustic

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15
Q

What is the term for the rehearsal process to move information from the short-term memory to the long-term memory?

A

memory consolidation

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16
Q

what is long term memory

A

the continuous storage of memory (unlike short term memory it has no limits)

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17
Q

state the summary of long term memory

A

duration: unlimited
capacity: unlimited
coding primarily semantic but can be others

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18
Q

what was Peterson and Peterson study

A

(1959) wanted to test the theory that information is quickly lost from short-term memory if its not rehearsed.

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19
Q

what procedure was conducted in peterson and petersons study

A
  • laboratory experiment
  • 24 psychology students participants
  • participants had to try and recall trigrams (like PRC) after different intervals of time (3,6,9,12…)
  • during these intervals participants were to count backwards from a random number in groups of three and four. This was to stop them from rehearsing the trigrams in their head
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20
Q

what was the results of petersons and petersons study (1959)

A

participants could recall fewer trigrams as the time gap increased eg

  • 3-second intervals-participants recalled 80%correctly
  • 18-second intervals-participants recalled 10% correctly
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21
Q

what was the conclusion of petersons and petersons study

A

our short term memory has limited duration when we cant rehearse information

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22
Q

what are the positives of petersons and petersons (1959)

A

good control of variables- because of lab setting

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23
Q

what are the cons of petersons and petersons study

A
  • low ecological validity=because of artificial set up

- lacking variety of stimulus =no data on whether the type of stimulus affects the duration of the short term memory

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24
Q

what did Bahrick et al. (1975) study

A

studied very long-term memory (VLTM) by testing the ability of people to recall the names of ex-classmates.

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25
Q

what was Bahrick et al method

A

the teachers set up a series of three tests to test the long term memory of 392 participants.
the participants were tested 15 years , 30 years and 48 years after their graduation

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26
Q

what was Bahricks three tests

A
  • free recall =simply asked to list ex-classmates with no prompts
  • photo recognition=the participants were asked to recall the names of people from their photographs from their class year book.(no list of names were given)
  • name recognition =asked to match the names of people to their photograph(ie they were given a randomised list of names )
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27
Q

what was Bahricks results

A
  • the results showed that free recall (no pictures or memory cues) declined the most within 30 years, whereas name- recognition maintained a higher accuracy
  • 15 years after graduation:
  • there was a 90% accuracy for the name recognition test
  • 60% accuracy for free recall test
  • this was true fro even large class sizes
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28
Q

what was Bahricks results after 30 and 38 years

A 
- 30 years after graduation: 
only 30% accuracy for  free recall 
- 48 years after graduation:
name recognition was 80% accurate
photo recognition was 40% accurate
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29
Q

what did peterson and petetrson want to test

A

they wanted to test the theory that information is quickly lost from short-term memory if its not rehearsed.

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30
Q

what did Bahrick et al conclude

A

Through the years recognition was more accurate than recall. They concluded that the information is stored in long term memory but information may be difficult to retrieve.

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31
Q

name a postitive of Bahricks study

A

-ecological validity-
it was a field experiment conducted over a long period of time and tested name recall
name recall if a skill that the majority of people use everyday

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32
Q

name a negative of Bahricks study

A

name recall is generally more meaningful to people than other information and so results cannot be generalised to other types of information that people may hold in their long-term memory. Furthermore, the nature of the study made it very challenging to control for extraneous variables as took place over approximately 50 years.

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33
Q

what is acoustic information

A

how the words sounds eg acoustically similar words would be ball and mall

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34
Q

what is semantic information

A

based on the meaning of the words eg the words intelligent smart and clever and semantically similar

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35
Q

what did Baddeley and Hitch propose (1974)

A

a multi component model of memory

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36
Q

what does the multi component model of memory consist of

A
  • the central executive
  • the phonological loop
  • the visuo- spatial sketchpad
  • episodic buffer
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37
Q

Is the working memory store more or less static than the short-term memory store as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin?

A

Less static.

Working memory is said to be a dynamic store where information can be manipulated and combined with new information.

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38
Q

Research on coding

A

Baddeley

Acoustic in STM, semantic in LTM

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39
Q

Evaluation of research on coding

A

Artificial stimuli - word lists had no personal significance

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40
Q

Research on capacity

A
  • digit Span = Jacobs ( digit span ) : 9.3, 7.3 letters

- span of memory and chunking = miller : 7 +/-2 , pitting items together extends STM capacity

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41
Q

Evaluation of research on capacity

A
  • lacking validity = could be extraneous variables such as distractions
  • not so many chunks = Cowan : estimated STM as about four chunks
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42
Q

Research on duration

A
  • STM - Peterson and Peterson: up to 18 seconds without rehearsal
  • LTM - Bahrick et al ( yearbooks ) recognition of faces 90% after 15 years ,recall 60%. Recognition dropped to 70% after 48 years
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43
Q

Evaluation of research on duration

A
  • meaningless stimuli - used consonant stimuli
  • high external validity - meaningful real life memories, showed greater recall that LTM studies with meaningless material ( shepherd)
44
Q

What is the multi store model of memory

A

A representation of memory with three stores : sensory register , short term memory and long term memory

45
Q

Definition of sensory register

A

Inconic and echoic stores with very brief duration , high- capacity
Transfer by attention

46
Q

Definition of short term memory

A

Limited capacity and duration store
Mainly acoustic coding
Transfer to LTM by rehearsal

47
Q

Definition of long term memory

A

Unlimited capacity and duration, permanent store. Mainly semantic
Created through maintenance rehearsal

48
Q

Evaluation of multi store model of memory

A
  • supporting research evidence - studies into coding, capacity and duration demonstrate differences between STM and LTM
  • there is more than one type of STM - studies of amnesia show different STMs for visual and auditory material
  • there is more than one type of rehearsal -elaborative rehearsal necessary for transfer to LTM, not maintenance rehearsal
49
Q

What are the three different types of long term memory stores

A
  • episodic memory
  • semantic memory
  • procedural memory
50
Q

What is the episodic memory

A

Memory for events in our lives (‘diary’)

51
Q

What is the semantic memory

A

Memory for knowledge of the world like an encyclopaedia and dictionary. Includes language

52
Q

What is the procedural memory

A

Memory for automatic and often skilled behaviours

53
Q

Evaluation of types of long term memory

A
  • clinical evidence - clubs wearing and HM has damaged episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories fine
  • neuroimaging evidence- episodic and procedural memories recalled from different parts of the prefrontal cortex
  • real life applications - training programmes did for adults with mild cognitive impairments
54
Q

What is the working memory model

A

Dynamic processing in short term memory

55
Q

What are the components in the working memory model

A
  • central executive
  • phonological loop
  • Visuo - spatial sketch pad
  • episodic buffet
56
Q

What is the central executive (CE)

A

Co ordinates slave systems and allocates resources , very limited storage

57
Q

What is the phonological loop (PL)

A

Auditory information - phonological store and articulatory process ( maintenance rehearsal)

58
Q

What is this visuo spatial sketchpad (VSS)

A

Visual information- visual cache (store) and inner scribe ( spatial arrangement )

59
Q

What is the episodic buffer(EB)

A

Integrates processing of Slave systems and records the order of events. Linked to LTM

60
Q

Evaluation of the working memory model

A
  • clinical evidence= KF has poor auditory memory but good visual memory. Damaged PL but VSS fine
  • dual task performance = difficult to do two visual tasks at same time, but his visual and one verbal is ok ( Baddeley et al )
  • lack of clarity over the CE = not yet fully explained , probably has different components
61
Q

What are the explanations for forgetting

A
  • interference theory

- retrieval failure theory

62
Q

What is the interference theory

A

One memory blocks another
Types of interference = proactive - old memories did truly new ones
Retroactive - new memories disrupt old ones

Effects of similarity = McGeoch and McDonald: similar words created more interference

63
Q

Evaluation of inference theory

A
  • evidence from lab studies - well controlled studies show interference effects
  • artificial materials - list of words are not like everyday memory, may over emphasise interference as an explanation
  • real life studies- baddeley and hitch ( rugby players ) supported interference
64
Q

What is retrieval failure

A

Forgetting because of a lack of cues
is where the information is in long term memory, but cannot be accessed. Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

65
Q

Evaluation of retrieval failure

A
  • supporting evidence
    Wide range of support. Eysenck claims retrieval failure is most important reason for LTM forgetting
  • questioning context effects
    No forgetting unless contexts are very different eg on Land versus underwater ( baddeley )
  • recall recognition
    Absence of cues affects recall but not recognition
66
Q

What factors affect eyewitness testimony

A
  • misleading information

- anxiety

67
Q

How does misleading information affect eyewitness testimony

A
  • leading questions
    Loftus and Palmer ( car speed): estimates affected by leading question ( smashes versus contacted )
  • why do leading questions affect EWT
    Response bias - no change to memory
    Substitution explanation supported by loftus and Palmer and report of presence of glass
  • post event discussion
    Discussion with others contaminates eyewitness memories -Gabbert et al , demonstrated effect calling it memory conformity- information and normative social influence involved
68
Q

Evaluation of misleading information (EWT)

A
  • useful real life applications
    Could help prevent miscarriages of justice and change police interviewing
  • tasks are artificial
    Watching film clips ignored the stress and anxiety associated with a real accident or crime
  • Individual difference
    Older people may be less accurate because of own age bias
69
Q

How does anxiety affect eye witness testimony

A
  • Anxiety has a negative effect on recall
    Johnson ana Scott ( weapon focus ): high anxiety knife condition led to less good recall.
    Tunnel theory of Memory
  • anxiety has a positive affect on recall
    Yuille and cutshall ( shooting ): High anxiety associated with better recall when witnessing real crime
70
Q

Evaluation of anxiety ( EWT)

A

-field studies sometimes lack control
Researchers can’t control what happens to witnesses between the crime and the interview
- there are ethical issues
Creating anxiety in lab studies may cause psychological harm

71
Q

What was used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

A

Cognitive interview

72
Q

How does the cognitive interview improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

A
  • report everything= include even unimportant details
  • reinstate the context= picture the scene and recall how you felt. Context- dependent forgetting.
  • reverse order= recall from the end and work backwards. Disrupts expectations
  • change perceptive= put yourself in the shoes of someone else present. Disrupts schema
  • the enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)= Adds dynamics eg establishing eye contact
73
Q

Evaluation of cognitive interview

A

CI is time consuming- takes longer and needs special training

Support for the effectiveness of the ECI- ECI consistently produces more accurate recall than standard interviews

74
Q

Evaluation of capacity

A

Millers findings can’t be replicated —- Cowan reviewers studies on the capacity of the STM and concluded that STM is probably limited to four rather than seven chunks ——- this suggests that the STM is not as extensive as the 7+/- 2 claimed by miller

75
Q

Evaluation of coding

A

The LTM may not be exclusively semantic ——/ frost showed that long term recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories.——— this suggests LTM is encoded using the acoustic, visual and semantic information, depending on the type of information remembered

76
Q

Evaluations for types of long term memory

A

Evidence from case studies offers a further support for different types of LTM———- the case of hm highlights the distinction between procedural (knowing how) and episodic/ semantic ( knowing what ) memories. After surgery HM could still form new procedural memories but he was unable to form episodic memories

77
Q

What is retroactive interference

A

Refers to the observation that leading something new interferes with previously learned material, leading to that material being forgotten

78
Q

What is proactive interference

A

Refers to the observation that previously learned material interferes with current attempts to learn something, leading to forgetting of current material

79
Q

What is context dependent forgetting

A

Type of retrieval failure
Recall of knowledge of episodes is greater when the context present during learning and retrieval are the same. When the context is different, it is more difficult to retrieve information

80
Q

What is state dependent forgetting

A

Type of retrieval failure
Recall is greater when an individuals physical or psychological state is similar at encoding and retrieval. When these states are different, it is more difficult to retrieve information

81
Q

What was loftus and Palmer procedure into the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information ( in procedure 1 )

A

The researches showed 45 students seven firms of different traffic accidents. After each firm, participants were given a questionnaire with critical question containing one of five verbs: ‘ how fats were the cards going when they ( contacted / hit / bumped / collided / smashed) each other?

82
Q

What was loftus and Palmer procedure into the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information ( in procedure 2)

A

Participants were divided into three groups and shown a film of a car accident and again asked questions about the accident, including the question ‘did you see any broken glass ‘ ( there was no broken glass in the film)

83
Q

What was the findings in procedure 1 of loftus and Palmer

A

Participants given the verb ‘ smashed’ reported an average speed of 40.8mph in comparison to participants given the verb ‘ contacted ‘ who reported an average speed of 31.8mph

84
Q

What was findings in procedure 2 loftus and Palmer

A

The leading question did change the actual memory some participants had for the event with 32 per cent of participants given the verb ‘ smashed’ reporting broken glass compared with 14 percent of those given the verb ‘ hit’

85
Q

What is the conformity effect in post event discussion

A

Refers to how a persons memory I or an event may be altered as a result of discussing it with others and/or being questioned multiple times

86
Q

What is a repeat interviewing in post event discussion

A

Each time an eyewitness is interviewed there is a possibility that the comments from the interviewer will become incorporated into their own recollection of the event

87
Q

How does anxiety affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

A

Negative effect - automatic skills are not effected by anxiety, but performance on complicated cognitive tasks and such as eye witness memory tends to be reduced

Positive effect- Christiansen and Hubinette found better than 75 percent accurate recall in real witness to bank robberies. Witness who were most anxious ( the victim) has the best recall

88
Q

What was Johnson and Scott procedure into anxiety ( accuracy of eyewitness testimony )

A

Participants heard an argument and saw a man carrying a pen covered in grease (low anxiety condition ) or a knife covered in blood ( high anxiety, ‘ weapon focus ‘ condition ). They were later asked to identify the man from a set of photographs

89
Q

What was Johnson and Scott findings in the accuracy of eyewitness testimony : anxiety

A

The men’s accuracy was 49 per cent in the low anxiety per condition, compared to 33 per cent in the knife condition , supporting the idea of a weapon focus effect

90
Q

What is the standard police interview

A

Involves the interviewer doing most of the talking, asking specific questions that require specific answers. These techniques disrupt the natural process of searching through memory, making memory retrieval inefficient

91
Q

Name an study that was about how anxiety has a negative effect on memory

A

Loftus et al monitored eyewitness eye movements and found that the presence of a weapon caused attention to be drawn towards the weapon itself and away from other things such as a persons face

92
Q

Name a study that was about post event discussion

A

Gabbert el al showed pairs of participants a different video of the same event, so that each participant viewed unique items. Pairs were encouraged to discuss the event before individually recalling what they had witnessed. 71% oh these participants went on to mistakenly recall items acquired during their discussion

93
Q

What is the definition of retrieval failure

A

The failure to find an item of information because of insufficient cues during retrieval

94
Q

how do short term and long term differ

A

STM encoded acoustically and LTM encoded semantically

95
Q

Explain two differences between short-term memory and long-term memory in the multi store model

A

the capacity of STM is limited to 7 + / - 2 items whereas the capacity of LTM is unlimited
the duration of STM is up to 30 seconds whereas the duration of LTM is a lifetime.

96
Q

Explain how a cognitive interview differs from a standard interview

A

The main techniques used in a cognitive interview include context reinstatement (CR), reporting everything (RE), recall from a changed perspective (CP) recall in reverse order. A standard interview might just ask witnesses to recall an event, but a cognitive interview could ask them to recall the context in which the event occurred

97
Q

Outline how one research study investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).

A

in Loftus and Palmer’s study, participants were asked questions about a film. eg participants were tested in a laboratory situation. They were asked how fast a car was travelling when an accident occurred. Some questions included the words “smashed into”. Others included collided with, bumped into, hit or contacted

98
Q

what are the three stages of memory, In order, from first to last stage

A

encoding, storage and retrieval

the information is encoded then it is stored then finally if we want to use the information again it is retrieved

99
Q

what are the two main types of sensory code

A

acoustic code and visual code

100
Q

what is the difference between acoustic code and visual code

A

acoustic is what we use to store information about sound, and visual code , is used to store information about images

101
Q

what three different properties can memory stores vary in

A

capacity, duration and coding

102
Q

what is sensory coding

A

when we store sensory information

103
Q

what is semantic code

A

storing information by its meaning

104
Q

what two types of coding are there which can be used to store information

A

semantic and sensory

105
Q

what did sperling find about the sensory register

A
  • large capacity

- short duration

106
Q

how long can the sensory register hold information

A

1-2seconds

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