Memory

Question 1

• Information processing model

Answer 1

• Information processing model proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions. Doesn’t describe where things happen in the brain. INPUT -> PROCESS -> OUTPUT
o The information-processing model is a bottom-up or stimulus driven model.
o The information-processing model assumes limited storage capacity.
o The human brain is believed to have a limited capacity for attention.

o The information-processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing.

Question 2

sensory register/sensory memory

Answer 2

o First stage of Information processing model is getting the input – occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). Where you first interact with information in your environment. Temporary register of all information your senses you’re taking in.

Sensory memory/register: Two components based on type of input. You have iconic (memory for what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory. Defined by time.

Question 3

 Partial Report Technique:

Answer 3

 Partial Report Technique: Report one part of a whole field in cued recall. The partial report condition required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall. The cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals (~50 ms) following the offset of the stimulus. The frequency of the tone (high, medium, or low) indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported. Due to the fact that participants did not know which row would be cued for recall, performance in the partial report condition can be regarded as a random sample of an observer’s memory for the entire display. This type of sampling revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

Question 4

 Whole Report Technique:

Answer 4

 Whole Report Technique: The whole report condition required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible. Participants were typically able to recall three to five characters from the twelve character display (~35%).[1] This suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of four-to-five items.

Question 5

• Working memory (Short –Term Memory)

Answer 5

• Working memory (Short –Term Memory): is the sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment. Capacity is Magic number 7 . Working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. Does vary based on how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are. Different components to process input. Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention
.
o Explains the serial position effect (primacy and recency effects)
o Processing occurs at the visuo-spacial sketchpad and phonologic loop.

Question 6

 Visuo-spatial sketchpad:

Answer 6

Visual + spatial info are processed in the

Question 7

 Phonological loop:

Answer 7

 Phonological loop: verbal info (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed. Ex. Repeating a phone # to yourself. It is believed that the phonological store capacity is around 2 seconds.

Question 8

the central executive

Answer 8

o What about visual + verbal info (like a map that has street names and landmarks). Need coordination of the visuo-spacial sketchpad and the phonologic loop– the central executive fills that role. The central executive tells the visuo-spacial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate.
–> The Central Executive supervises the cognitive process of memory.

Question 9

episodic buffer

Answer 9

o The central executive creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer, which acts as a connecter for information to be stored in long-term memory.

Question 10

o The dual coding hypothesis

Answer 10

o The dual coding hypothesis says it’s easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.

Question 11

method of loci

Answer 11

the method of loci – imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered.

Question 12

o Operational Span Testing

Answer 12

o Operational Span Testing: A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the “operation span”.

Question 13

long-term memory.

Answer 13

• Final stage is long-term memory. Capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative). It is unlimited.

Question 14

o Explicit Memory /Declarative

Answer 14

o Explicit Memory (Declarative & conscious) are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. Explicit memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. Explicit memory can be divided into two categories, episodic and semantic.

Question 15

semantic memory

Answer 15

So remembering simple facts like meanings of words.

 Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you’re using semantic memory (has to do with words/facts).

Question 16

episodic memory

Answer 16

(event-related memories…like your last birthday party.).

Question 17

o Implicit Memories /Non-Declarative (procedural memory, habit formation, classical conditioning)

Answer 17

o Implicit Memories (Non-Declarative & unconscious) involve things you may not articulate. Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.[1] Evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process whereby subjects are measured by how they have improved their performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared. – such as riding a bicycle, procedural memories.
 All memories formed by conditioning are implicit memories.
 Implicit memories are formed unconsciously.
 All habits are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory.
 Memories that inform unconscious motor skills are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory.

Question 18

Procedural memory

Answer 18

 Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory.
 Habit learning occurs in a specific type of implicit memory.
 Habits/Implicit memory is stored in the basal ganglia.

Question 19

Priming

Answer 19

priming – previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event. refers to the change in the response towards a stimulus due to a subconscious memory effect. Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus.

Question 20

 Negative priming

Answer 20

 Negative priming is an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. Negative prime lowers the speed of processing to slower than un-primed levels

Question 21

 Positive Priming

Answer 21

A positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation. This means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.

Question 22

• Autobiographical memory

Answer 22

• Autobiographical memory (declarative/explicit) is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.

Question 23

Encoding

Answer 23

Encoding is transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory.
• Encoding is more successful when more cognitive effort is actively used. Combining encoding strategies is more useful than using only one.
• Most mnemonic devices/encoding techniques = greater likelihood of remembering information later. Do require more effort, but make studying quicker/more effective.

Question 24

• Encoding Specificity:

Answer 24

• Encoding Specificity: Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

Question 25

Rote rehearsal

Answer 25

(Encoding) Rote rehearsal – Say the same thing over and over remember. least effective technique. Ex. Remembering someone’s name is bob that you just met, and you can’t after a while. Doesn’t require you to process the information. More successful techniques involve tying in the new information to previously known information.
o Rote rehearsal is simply repeating information. It requires the least amount of cognitive effort.

Question 26

Chunking

Answer 26

(encoding) Chunking – we group info we’re getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization.
- it’s easier to remember things if they are chunked/tied together in some way.

Question 27

Mnemonic Devices

Answer 27

Mnemonic Devices – Link what you are trying to learn into previously existing long-term information that is already in your memory.

Question 28

-crazier the better

Answer 28

o imagery -crazier the better (Mnemonic Devices)

Question 29

Pegword system

Answer 29

(Mnemonic Devices) Pegword system -Verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number – EX.1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. Then you pair list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (another mnemonic technique) like Broccoli looks like a tree so it’s 4th on the list.

Question 30

Method of loci

Answer 30

(Mnemonic Devices) o Method of loci - good for remembering things in order, link info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know. Ex. Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries. Again, this method also ties imagery.

Question 31

o Acronym –

Answer 31

(Mnemonic Devices) o Acronym – each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember. [ex. HOMES to remember Great lakes of the US – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior]

Question 32

Self-referencing

Answer 32

(Encoding) Self-referencing – think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: Imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general.
o Related idea: preparing to teach – idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else. You learn it a lot better because you put more effort into organizing it and understanding the information the best you can. (involves great deal of processing)

Question 33

Spacing

Answer 33

Spacing – spreading out study sessions overtime in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session. [spacing effect]
o Ex: Most people think if they have 5 hours to study they should study immediately before so it is “fresh in your mind” but if you put in 5x 1 hr sessions you will learn the information in the long term far better.
• One reason it is thought to be helpful is it lets you know what you don’t know while you start your studying and it also introduces a form of self-testing so you are able to prepare yourself.

Question 34

Retrieval

Answer 34

Retrieval: Trying to remember/call up a memory of something you learned before. Successful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding.

–> Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory, and bringing it into conscious memory (working memory) you’re engaging in retrieval.

–> Problem with retreival: Every time we retrieve a memory we change it in small ways, according to our goals/mood/or environment. Sometimes these alternations are due to our own desires and moods. If there is a gap in our memory – our brain might fill it in with something logical or desirable.
o Ex: Someone tells a story about a fish they caught. Every time they tell the story, the fish gets bigger.

Question 35

• Priming –

Answer 35

(Retrieval cues) Priming – prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness. Ex. hearing a story about apple and asked to name word starting with A. Ex: reading a story that is about rabbits and then hearing the word hair/hare – you are more likely to think of the word as hare.

Question 36

• Context –

Answer 36

(Retrieval cues)• Context – the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the information) is helpful. . Not always the case, so if you can’t take test in same place, studying in different places gives you diff cues for retrieval – so multiple cues that will help you remember the material.

o Ex: Scuba divers learnt info in water or on land, then later tested in water or land. Those people who learned and were tested in the same place scored better than learning in one location than getting tested in another.

Question 37

• State-dependent

Answer 37

(Retrieval cues)• State-dependent – your state at the moment you encode. When you are in a certain mood when you encode you can then remember it when you are in the same mood.
o Ex. If you learn something while drunk you’ll remember next time you’re drunk – this happens because being drunk provides an internal retrieval cue to your brain.
o Mood can be a cue for state dependent memory to. Like if you are sad/angry it can lead to remembering other times you were sad/angry. This can lead to thinks like depression because those feeling down are more likely to think of other reasons to be down. Converse is true as well, when you are happier you are more likely to think of other times you were happy (or are likely to interpret other events in a positive light).
 This also happens with advertisement that associate a product with a certain mood. Next time you see a product, it is likely to be a cue for a happy mood and you are more likely to buy it. Or next time you’re in that mood you will remember that product.

Question 38

• Memory retrieval from most difficult to easiest:

Answer 38

• Memory of retrieval from most difficult to easiest: Free Recall, Cued recall, recognition.

Question 39

• Free recall

Answer 39

• Free recall - no cues in recalling. Better recalling first items on a list (primacy effect) as well as last few (recency effect). Harder to remember things in the middle of a list. Recenecy effect is not as strong if there is an interpretation after list is called. Curve is called the serial position curve/effect: the overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, and middle items not so great.

Question 40

• Cued recall (Recall cues)

Answer 40

• Cued recall (Recall cues)– Having extra clues to remember the words. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you. The added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory. Get more retrieval cues, tend to do better than free recall. For example, giving you the cue of “pl____” and asking for what word was on a list and you answer “planet”. This would be easy.

Question 41

• Recognition

Answer 41

• Recognition – best out of the 3 tests/easiest to recall. Present two words, and say which one you heard. Retrieval of correct word is highly likely. Ex. What was on the list? Fork or spoon and you answer fork.

Question 42

schema

Answer 42

• Sometimes information we retrieve is based on a schema (mental blueprint containing common aspects of world), instead of reality.

Question 43

• False information

Answer 43

• False information – inaccurate recollections of an event.
o Ex: Experiment done where participants watched a car stop at a yield sign. After the video, participants were given a written description on what happened, and some of the descriptions included false information about the car stopping- saying that the car stopped at a stop sign instead of a yield sign. Those who got the false information, more likely claimed the car stopped at a stop sign than the yield sign.

Question 44

• Misleading information –

Answer 44

• Misleading information –
o Ex: Participants watched a traffic safety video in which they observed a car crash, and then then participants were asked questions on what happened and the key question was “how fast cars were the cars going when they hit each other” “Some people got the question with the word “hit” and some got “smash”. Those participants who received the question with the word “smashed”, they were more likely to say there was glass on the ground in the video (even though there was not any glass on the ground)

–> • False/misleading information is problematic for police officers to ask leading questions. Even simple phrases can impact recall.

Question 45

Source monitoring error & source amnesia

Answer 45

• When people recall information they often forget the information’s source – an error in source monitoring. (ex. Can forget if the yield sign was in original video or in the written description even if you were able to identify you saw the yield sign OR ex. people might have difficulties calling out memories of a video car crash from other car crashes they remember or from movies where there was glass on the ground)
o Source monitoring can be improved by using more retrieval cues, discovering and noting relations and extended reasoning. ex. angry with someone but forgot it happened in a dream. Or recognize someone but don’t know from where.
 Source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge.

Question 46

• Emotional memories/Flashbulb memories

Answer 46

• Emotional memories can be positive or negatively valenced. Highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid are called flashbulb memories (term coined by Brown and Kulik (1977)) – and even though they seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction as less emotional memories.
o Flashbulb memories: people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionallyarousing event.
o Ex. your memory about your birth can be positively valenced while memory of planes hitting twin towers on 9/11 might be negatively valenced). , but highly vivid memories are called.

–> • Reconstruction isn’t very drastic often so it’s not like everything you remember is a lie. But, you should understand that video is not a video recorder, it is not perfect. It is an organic connections of neural connections in your brain which can be altered and reformed each time they are exercised.

Question 47

• Inattention

Answer 47

• Inattention = impacts memory formation negatively (being bored would do this)

Question 48

synaptic plasticity

Answer 48

• Brain doesn’t grow new cells to store memories – connections between neurons strengthen. Called long-term potentiation (LTP), one example of synaptic plasticity.

Question 49

long-term potentiation

Answer 49

• With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential– stronger synapse, and when it lasts long time it is called long-term potentiation. This is how learning occurs!
• In LTP, the same presynaptic stimulation will elicit a stronger and stronger response in the postsynaptic neuron. This mechanism is what allows for facilitated recollection.
o In this mechanism, equal levels of presynaptic stimulation result in greater postsynaptic potential
o The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron. This will result in a stronger neural response.

Question 50

• Neural Plasticity

Answer 50

• Neural Plasticity – changes in brain size/ and involves function of environmental influences

Question 51

Decay

Answer 51

Decay – One reason forgetting happens. When we don’t encode something well or don’t retrieve it for a while, we can’t recall it anymore. One theory is that the pathway between cue and memory become weaker over time or periods of disuse which makes it harder to stimulate those neurons. If you learn something once and never revisit, it is likely to decay over time. Initial rate of forgetting/decay is high but levels off over time.

Question 52

Ebbinghaus (German philosopher/psychologist in 1800s)

Answer 52

o	Ebbinghaus (German philosopher/psychologist in 1800s) was first person to look at decay in human memory.  Found his rate of forgetting very fast, but if he remembered it after initial stage it levelled out. In hs experiment, he memorized three letter nonsense syllables. 
o	Later, people replicated this experiment with different patterns and time intervals and found that the more integrated the initial memory, still follows same pattern but it takes a longer time to forget. Most forgetting happens first few days but after that point forgetting will levels out

Question 53

Savings & relearning

Answer 53

• Just because you can’t retrieve something doesn’t mean it’s completely gone. One way you can tell if someone has learnt something before is how quickly relearning happens. Even if Ebbinghaus couldn’t reproduce everything, took less time to learn list second time around. This foundation is called savings. This means that some foundation of the memory still existed even if he couldn’t produce it.
• Works with procedural skills too – ex. With piano.

Question 54

o Retroactive interference

Answer 54

o Retroactive interference - new learning impairs old info. Refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information.
 ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address

Question 55

o Proactive interference

Answer 55

o Proactive interference - something you learned in past impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information.
 ex. New password learning – prior pw learning impairs ability to learn new one