memory

Question 1

describe Baddeley’s experiment about coding.

Answer 1

he split participants into four groups and allocated each one of four lists of words: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar and semantically dissimilar. participants had to recall the order of the list.
STM - when asked immediately after participants did worst in acoustically similar words so the STM is coded acoustically.
LTM - when asked to recall the words 20 minutes after hearing the list participants did worst with semantically similar words. the LTM is coded semantically.

Question 2

evaluate Baddeley’s experiment about coding.

Answer 2

it uses an artificial stimuli - unlikely to have to exactly recall a list of words. so it has low mundane realism and ecological validity as it may not generalize to everyday situations.

Question 3

describe Jacob’s study into capacity.

Answer 3

Jacobs developed a way of measuring the digit span of the STM. the researcher reads a list of four numbers, if the participant then recalls them correctly the researcher reads 5 digits and so on until the participant fails. Jacobs found that the mean digit span was 9.3 and the mean letter span was 7.3

Question 4

evaluate Jacobs’ study into capacity.

Answer 4

Jacobs research was conducted in 1887 - a long time ago. it may well have lacked internal validity due to lack of control in many old experiments. confounding variable may not have been controlled.

Question 5

describe Miller’s research on capacity.

Answer 5

Miller observed the world and realised that a lot of things come in 7’s - days of the week etc. he estimated that span of the STM is 7 plus or minus 2. He also came up with the theory of chunking - we remember 5 words as well as 5 letters because we chunk patterns together.

Question 6

evaluate Miller’s research on capacity.

Answer 6

he may have overestimated the capacity. subsequent research has shown the capacity to be around 4 chunks of information not 7.

Question 7

describe Peterson and Peterson’s research into duration.

Answer 7

• tested 24 undergraduates
• each student took part in eight trials
• in each trial the student was given a trigram to remember and a three digit number to count down from to prevent mental rehearsal.
• on each trial they were told to stop at different intervals: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
• they found that the STM has a very limited duration of 18 - 30 seconds.

Question 8

evaluate Peterson and Peterson’s research into duration.

Answer 8

the study lacked ecological validity as the stimuli of a trigram is pretty artificial and meaningless.

Question 9

describe Bahrick’s research into duration.

Answer 9

• 392 participants from Ohio aged 17 - 74
• high school yearbooks were used to test recall in two ways 1) recognition of 50 photos, some from their highschool yearbook 2) free recall where participants recalled the names of their graduating class.
• within 15 years photo recognition was 90% accurate
• after 48 years it declined to 70%
• free recall was 60% at 15 years and 30% after 48.

Question 10

evaluate Bahrick’s study.

Answer 10

• it has very high mundane realism and external validity as it tested real memories
• however this means that confounding variables are not controlled so it may lack internal validity.

Question 11

what is coding?

Answer 11

the format in which information is stored within memory

Question 12

what is capacity?

Answer 12

the amount of information that can be held inside a memory store

Question 13

what is duration?

Answer 13

the length of time information can be held in the memory.

Question 14

define short term memory.

Answer 14

a limited capacity memory store, that is coded acoustically. it has an average capacity of about 5-9 chunks and lasts between 18 and 30 seconds.

Question 15

define long term memory.

Answer 15

the permanent memory store, coding is semantic and the duration and capacity seem to be unlimited.

Question 16

what is the Multi - Store Model?

Answer 16

A representation of how memory works, in terms of three stores: the sensory register, short term memory and long term memory. it also describes how memory is moved from one store to another and how it is forgotten.

Question 17

outline the structure of the MSM.

Answer 17

a stimulus from the environment is processed by the sensory register.
it is then passed into the STM, where with prolonged rehearsal it will pass into the LTM.
maintenance rehearsal keeps the information in the short term memory.
getting information from the LTM to the STM is called retrieval.

Question 18

what is the sensory register?

Answer 18

the memory store for each of our five senses. the main ones being iconic - coded visually and echoic - coded acoustically. the capacity of the sensory register is huge as it takes in all the stimuli of our surroundings. however the information will only pass into the STM if we pay attention to it.

Question 19

describe the research support for the MSM.

Answer 19

the fact that the MSM states that the STM and LTM are two separate stores is supported by a lot of research, including Baddeley who proved that the two stores are coded differently. one semantically and one acoustically.

Question 20

how does the case study KF serve as an evaluation for the MSM?

Answer 20

the MSM only illustrates one kind of STM. Shallice and Warrington studied K, who had amnesia. he was unable to recall digits when they were read to him but was able to remember them if he read them to himself. this serves as a weakness of the MSM as it doesn’t specify a difference so is not a complete explanation.

Question 21

how do Craik and Watkins findings serve as a weakness of the MSM?

Answer 21

Craik and Watkins found that the MSM was wrong about maintenance rehearsal - it does not transfer information into the LTM, it only maintains it in the STM. they found that elaborative rehearsal was needed to do this - where you think about the meaning of information.

Question 22

What is episodic memory?

Answer 22

A long term memory store for personal events. It includes memories of when the events occurred and the people, objects, places and behaviours involved. Memories in the store have to be retrieved consciously with effort.

Question 23

What is semantic memory?

Answer 23

A long term memory store for our knowledge of the world. This includes facts and our knowledge of what word and concepts mean. These memories need to be recalled deliberately and with effort

Question 24

What is procedural memory?

Answer 24

A long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes our memories of learnt skills. We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort.

Question 25

Who proposed that there were three types of LTM?

Answer 25

Endel Tulving

Question 26

What clinical evidence is there for the types of long term memory?

Answer 26

The case studies of HM and Clive Wearing are both examples of patients with brain damage, now unable to form any new long term memories. In both their episodic was damaged but their procedural and semantic memory was in tact. They knew the concept behind words and could even still play the piano. This shows that the long term memory is not as simple as just one store in one location.

Question 27

What is the neuroimaging evidence for the three types of LTM?

Answer 27

Tulving et al. Got patients to do various tasks involving memory under a PET scanner. He found that episodic and semantic memory showed up in deferent areas of the prefrontal cortex. Showing that the types of LTM are not just different stores but also in different areas of the brain.

Question 28

What are the real life applications of the three types of LTM?

Answer 28

It allows scientists and doctors to target certain areas of the brain. For example Belleville et al. Found that episodic memories could be improved in older people with mild cognitive impairment. This highlights the medical benefit of being able to distinguish between types of memory and where they are in the brain itself

Question 29

what is the working memory model?

Answer 29

a representation of short term memory. it suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision making system.

Question 30

what is the central executive in the WMM?

Answer 30

an attentional component that monitors incoming data and allocates slave systems to tasks. it has a very limited processing capacity.

Question 31

what is the Phonological loop in the WMM?

Answer 31

the slave system responsible for auditory information. it is divided into the phonological store: stores the words you hear. and the articulatory process: a two second loop that allows maintenance rehearsal.

Question 32

what is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad in the WMM?

Answer 32

the slave system responsible for visual and spatial information. Logie divided it into the visual cache: stores visual data. and the inner scribe: records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

Question 33

what is the episodic buffer in the WMM?

Answer 33

added to the model by Baddeley in 2000. it is a temporary store of information integrating visual, spatial and verbal information. it also records time sequencing of events. it is thought to have a capacity of four chunks and is linked to the LTM and wider cognitive processes such as perception.

Question 34

evaluate the WMM.

Answer 34

• Shalllice and Warrington’s case study of KF - who had brain damage, he could process visual information but not verbal/audio information - showing that these are two separate processes in the brain.
• studies of dual-task performance such as Baddeley show that people have more difficulty doing two visual tasks at once that one visual and one auditory - because one slave system is being overworked.
• the lack of clarity over the role of the central executive is a weakness as the theory is not complete.

Question 35

what is interference theory?

Answer 35

forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten. works on the LTM

Question 36

what is proactive interference?

Answer 36

forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored in the LTM, disrupt the recall of more recent memories. the degree of forgetting is largest when the memories are similar.

Question 37

what is retroactive interference?

Answer 37

forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. the degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.

Question 38

describe McGeoch and McDonald’s study into interference theory.

Answer 38

• they studied retroactive interference by changing the similarity of materials used
• participants had to learn a set of 10 words until they could recall them perfectly.
• they then had to learn one of 6 new lists including numbers, synonyms, unrelated words, nonsense syllables etc.
• they found that the most similar second list produced the worst recall and numbers the best (except for no new list)

Question 39

evaluate the interference theory for forgetting.

Answer 39

• lab studies such as McGeoch and McDonald support the theory and therefor increase its validity.
• interference is much more likely to be seen in a lab than real life because of the use of artificial materials. this lowers its external validity.
• Baddeley and Hitch did a study with rugby players where they asked them to recall matches and scores they had played. time had no effect on recall, it was how many games the players had been in since that game that effected their recall.

Question 40

what is retrieval failure?

Answer 40

a form of forgetting that occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access a memory. the memory is available but we are not able to access it unless we have a suitable cue.

Question 41

what is a ‘cue’?

Answer 41

a ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory. such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning. cues may be internal or external.

Question 42

what is the Encoding Specificity Principle?

Answer 42

Tulvings theory that a cue must be present at encoding and at recall in order for us to remember it. some cues are meaningful such as a mnemonic, others are not meaningful.

Question 43

what is context dependent forgetting?

Answer 43

when the cue to remember something is the context you learnt it in. for example outside or inside, the classroom or environment etc.

Question 44

what is state dependent forgetting?

Answer 44

when the cue to remember something is the state you were in when you learnt it, for example if you’re tired you are less likely to remember things you learnt when you were very awake.

Question 45

describe a study into context dependent forgetting.

Answer 45

Godden and Baddeley used deep sea divers.

• divers learnt a list of words either on land or underwater.
• they were split into 4 groups where they were asked to recall the words again either in the environment they learnt them or in the other environment.
• accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions. this is because the external cues were different.

Question 46

describe a study into state dependent forgetting.

Answer 46

Carter and Cassiday gave anti-histamine drugs to their patients, these make people mildly drowsy. this internal state is different to the normal of feeling awake and well. the participants had to learn lists of words and prose passages either on the drug or not on the drug.
- performance was significantly worse when in the non-matching conditions e.g. learn on drug, recall when normal.

Question 47

evaluate the retrieval failure theory of forgetting.

Answer 47

• Godden and Baddeley and Carter and Cassiday studies provide supporting evidence.
• differences in context have to be very large for it to have an impact on memory
• it was only recall that suffered in Baddeleys experiment, when they used the same process to test recognition they saw no difference between conditions.

Question 48

what is eye witness testimony?

Answer 48

the ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading information, anxiety and leading questions.

Question 49

what is a leading question?

Answer 49

a question which, because of the way that it is phrased suggests a certain answer or response.

Question 50

describe Loftus and Palmer’s study on how leading questions effect EWT.

Answer 50

participants watched a film of a car accident on a screen. afterwards they were asked a series of questions about the film. among these was a critical question - how fast was the car going when they — each other. the blank was one of five different verbs such as bumped or impacted implying different speeds. they found that the mean speed guessed for the word contacted was 31.8 mph whereas for the verb smashed the mean was 40.5 mph.

Question 51

why do leading questions affect EWT?

Answer 51

response bias explanation suggests that it has no affect on how the person sees something, just how they choose to answer.
substitution explanation suggests that it actually changes how the person remembers an event (in Loftus and Palmer participants who heard the word smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass)

Question 52

what is post event discussion?

Answer 52

occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. witnesses may discuss what they saw with co-witnesses or other people. this discussion may influence the accuracy of their recall.

Question 53

describe Gibbert’s study into how post event discussion affects EWT.

Answer 53

they paired students and made each student in a pair watch the same video clip from a different angle, so some saw information that the others could not. they were then allowed to discuss the clip and fill in a recall test of the clip. they found that 71% of participants recalled data they had not directly seen from the video but picked up in discussion - obviously in a control group with no discussion this was 0%.

Question 54

what is misleading information in terms of EWT?

Answer 54

incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event. it can take many forms such as post event discussions or leading questions.

Question 55

evaluate how misleading information affects eye witness testimony.

Answer 55

• it has strong real world application and police officers have to be careful not to ask leading questions in interviews etc. psychologists believe research into misleading information could improve the world and the judiciary system especially.
• the studies done on misleading information usually use artificial materials like film clips, which are very different from seeing an accident or crime in the real world.
• there are individual differences between people - for example young people are more accurate than older people. although own age bias shows that all age groups are just as good at identifying those of their own age.

Question 56

What is anxiety?

Answer 56

A state of emotional and physical arousal. The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension. Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations, but can affect the accuracy and detail of EWT.

Question 57

Describe Johnson and Scott’s study on anxiety affecting EWT.

Answer 57

• they told participants they would be taking part in a lab study. While seated in a waiting room they heard an argument in the next room. In the low anxiety condition a man walked out holding a pen with grease on his hands. In the nigh anxiety condition a man walked out holding a paper knife covered in blood.
• in the low anxiety condition 49% of participants could pick the man out of 50 photos. In the hight anxiety condition 33% could.

Question 58

What is tunnel theory/weapon focus?

Answer 58

The witnesses attention is drawn to the weapon because it is a source of anxiety so they observe less of the things around them.

Question 59

Describe Yuille and Cutshalls experiment on how anxiety affects EWT.

Answer 59

• studied a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada. The shop owner killed a thief. Of 21 witnesses 13 took part. The interviews were held 4-5 months after the incident and were compared to the police interviews taken at the time. Accuracy was determined on number of details correctly recalled. They were also asked to rate their anxiety levels.
• participants who reported the highest stress levels were most accurate 88% compared to 75% in the less anxious group.

Question 60

What is the Yerkes Dodson law?

Answer 60

A curve that shows how low levels and high levels of anxiety will produce the least accurate EWT whereas medium arousal/anxiety produces the best recall.

Question 61

Evaluate the effects of anxiety on EWT.

Answer 61

• the weapons focus experiment may be more about surprise than anxiety, it is very unusual to see a gun whereas a pen is more normal so you’re less likely to look twice.
• field studies lack control as there may be extraneous variables a researcher did not control.
• there may be ethical issues with research if witnesses are put under high levels of anxiety in a study.

Question 62

What is the cognitive interview?

Answer 62

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses four main techniques, all based on well established psychological knowledge of human memory. Report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order and change perspective

Question 63

What does report everything involve in the cognitive interview?

Answer 63

Include every single detail even if it seems irrelevant. The details may be important or trigger important memories

Question 64

What does reinstate the context involve in the cognitive interview?

Answer 64

The witness returned to the crime scene in the mind and imagines the environment and their emotions. This is related to context dependent forgetting.

Question 65

What does reverse the order involve in the cognitive interview?

Answer 65

Event should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence. This is done to prevent people reporting the expectations of how the event must’ve happened rather than the actual event it also prevents dishonesty.

Question 66

What does changing perspective involve in the cognitive interview?

Answer 66

Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives. This is done to disrupt the effect of expectations and schema On recall

Question 67

What is the enhanced cognitive interview?

Answer 67

Fisher developed some additional elements of the cognitive interview to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction. For example the interview need to know when to establish I contact and when to stop. The enhanced interview also includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open ended questions.

Question 68

Evaluate the cognitive interview.

Answer 68

• police may be reluctant to use the cognitive interview as it takes much more time than the standard police interview. It also requires special training and many forces I’ve not been able to provide more than a few hours so it is unlikely that the proper version of the cognitive interview is actually used.
• some elements may be more valuable than others. The study found that a combination of report everything in context reinstatement produced better equal than any of the other conditions. This is a strength because it suggests that at least two elements should be used to improve police interviewing.
• research suggests that the enhanced cognitive interview may offer a special benefits for example a meta-analysis combine data from 50 studies. The enhanced cognitive interview consistently provided more correct information in the standard interview used by police