Memory Flashcards
Memory
fundamental cognitive mechanism that allows you to encode, store, and retrieve information
Encoding
reflects data entry or how information initially enters into memory, a selective process that is highly dependent on attention
Storage
concerns how the record of memory is maintained over time; this record is not fixed and can be modified
Retrieval
the act of recovering stored information; dependent on retrieval cues, a key piece of information that has the potential to activate a memory in full
Memory metaphors
video camera, filing cabinet, computer
Data vs. memory
data = stored data is identical to inputted information, retrieved data is identical to inputted information;
memory = stored memory includes personal details and interpretations,
retrieved memory may be altered or lost
Retention interval
the longer you wait to recall specific memory, the more likely to forget some of the details
Recall test
generate as many items as you remember
Recognition test
judge whether items are old or new
Sensory memory
transient maintenance of perceptual and physical information from the very recent past; not limited by attention; decays extremely quickly
Iconic memory
visual information represented by visual system
Echoic memory
auditory information represented by auditory system
Short-term memory
only some of the information in sensory memory is selected for further processing and enters short term memory
Storage of short-term memory
if unrehearsed, selected information can be maintained in the short-term memory buffer for about 20 seconds;
when information is rehearsed, it can be maintained for longer periods of time;
number of items that can be stored is 7 +/- 2 times
Chunking
organizing information into sets of familiar groups or categories of items; increases short-term memory
Working memory
upgrade to the original conceptualization of short term memory; consists of three short-term buffers
Phonological loop
temporary storage of 7 +/- 2 bits of phonological information for a short period of time;
maintains information that can be rehearsed verbally
Visuospatial sketchpad
temporarily represents and manipulates visual information
Episodic buffer
draws on the other buffers as well as on other stored long-term memories; engaged when remembering specific past episodes
Central executive
coordinates and manipulates information that is temporarily maintained in the buffers;
allows working memory to be more flexible and controllable than short-term memory
Long-term memory
only some memories make it to the long-term store;
information can be copied from short term to long term memory but this transfer is dependent on the rehearsal or encoding of that information
Organization of long-term memory
new information seems to be organized according to prior knowledge;
tendency to recall related information is clusters or groups even if information was learned in random order
Flow between short-term and long-term memory
flow between short term and long term memory is not unidirectional;
information is transferred from stored to conscious state when we are remembering the past
Declarative memories
memory for factual information, explicit memories (prototypical conception)
Semantic memories
general knowledge not tied to a particular place or time
Episodic memories
specific memories of past personal experiences tied to a particular place and time
Nondeclarative memories
learned actions and procedures, conditioned responses, implicit memories
Patient H.M
had medial temporal lobes removed in an attempt to mitigate severe epilepsy;
reduced epilepsy but caused memory deficit; experienced
retrograde and anterograde amnesia
Short-term memory and the brain
short term memory is established in the hippocampus;
this experience modifies connections among neurons to create an active link
Long-term memory and the brain
hippocampus might also assist in coordinating the activation of distributed cortical regions that are involved in representing parts of the whole memory
Serial position curve
memory performance is often best for items presented earlier or later in the list, and worst for items presented in the middle
Primacy effect
performance is good at beginning of list; first to enter short term memory, most opportunity to be rehearsed and transferred to long term memory
Recency effect
performance is good at end of list;
the newest items replace the oldest items in the short term memory buffer
remain active in short term memory
Manipulating primacy and recency effects
increasing time between item presentations affects primacy effect; recency task is diminished for groups who had to perform a distracting test immediately following encoding process
Levels of processing principle
the more we try to organize and understand the material, the better we remember it
Deep vs. shallow processing
items encoded at a deeper level (more attention, more elaboration) result in longer lasting memory;
items encoded at a shallower level (less attention, less elaboration) result in weaker lasting memory
Self-reference effect
thinking about the information as it pertains to you;
deeper level than even semantic processing
Encoding specificity
an item is not processed in isolation but together with the surrounding context; dependent on specificity of relation to the item
Scuba divers experiment
scuba divers studying word lists underwater subsequently remember more words underwater than on dry land;
memory is better for items that were encoded and retrieved in the same environment
Drug use experiment
information encoded under the influence of marijuana was best recalled while in the same drug state;
however, best overall performance was in the placebo-placebo condition
Transfer-appropriate processing
proposes that memory is aided when similar processes are engaged at encoding and retrieval
Forgetting
forgetting occurs when we lose the ability to retrieve previously stored information; allows current information to be remembered more effectively
Forgetting curve
memory saving decrease greatly at the beginning, then decline more gradually over time
Decay theory
forgetting occurs because memories fade with time; however it is not a well established theory
Interference
associating a cue with different information
Proactive interference
occurs if interfering information was learned prior to specific memory
Retroactive interference
occurs if new information interferes with retrieval of old information
Temporary forgetting
words that have induced tip-of-tongue state in the past are more likely to do so in the future; associated with error-prone retrieval process
Repression
horrific memories can be repressed as a defense mechanism;
however, it is possible that it is an example of ordinary forgetting
Elizabeth Loftus - false memories
participants had to remember a list of childhood memories, but one given was a false memory; by the third day, more than 20% of subjects believed that it was a true memory
Memory errors
memories are not replicas of the past but rather reconstructions that can be shaped by related but misleading information
Misinformation effect
creation of false memories by incorporating new erroneous information with an old memory
Source monitoring
process by which we make attributions about the origins of memory
Fluency
the ease with which an experience is processed;
based on familiarity vs. novel experiences
Attribution
judgment tying together causes with effects
False fame effect
misattribution generated to explain processing fluency;
due to delay, more difficult to attribute processing fluency
False memory implantation
repeatedly imagining an event can lead to a false memory, even for very bizarre situations
