Memory Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
state what the response-bias explanation suggests could be the reason for why leading questions affect eye witnesses testimony
A
that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participants’ memories, but just influences how they decide to answer.
2
Q
Give an example of a situation that could support the response-bias explanation
hint: what would a leading word like ‘smashed’ change a participant’s answer when describing speed estimates
A
When a participant gets a leading question using the word smashed, this encourages them to choose a higher speed estimate
3
Q
What does the substitution explanation propose?
A
the wording of a leading question changes the participant’s memory .
4
Q
what evidence could be used to support the substitution explanation bias?
hint: think Loftus and Palmer
A
in their (L&P’s) second experiment, participants who initially heard ‘smashed’ were later more likely to report seeing broken glass (there was none) than those who heard ‘hit’. the critical verb altered their memory of the incident.
5
Q
Outline the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study
A
-45 participants (students) watched film clips of car accidents and then were asked questions abt the accident.
-5 groups of participants were given a different verb in the critical question “how fast were the cars going when they each other?”
-the verb used was either hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed.
6
Q
what did loftus and palmer find in their study?
A
the verb ‘contacted’ resulted in a mean estimated speed of 31.8 mph. for the verb ‘smashed’, the mean was 40.5mph
7
Q
what can be concluded from loftus and palmer’s study? (1 thing)
A
that leading questions do have an impact an eyewitness’s recall of an event
8
Q
outline gabbert et al’s study on how post event discussion can affect eyewitness testimony
A
-participants were studied in pairs.
-each participant watched a video of the same crime , but it was filmed from different points of view.
-meaning tht each participant could see elements in the event tht the other couldnt.
-both participants then discussed wht theyd seen before individually completing a test of recall
9
Q
what did gabbert et al find in their study?
A
researchers had found evidence of memory conformity as 71% of participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the even that they didn’t see in the video but had picked up in the discussion. the corresponding figure in a control group, where their was no discussion, was 0%.
10
Q
what does the memory contamination explanation suggest could be the reason for why post event discussion affects eye witness testimony?
A
when a co-witnesses to a crime discuss it w/ each other, their eyewitness testimonies may become altered or distorted. Bc they combine (mis)information from others with their own memories.
11
Q
-define wht’s meant by the memory conformity explanation?
-who also came to conclusion that this was an explanation for post event discussion?
A
-witnesses often go along w/ each other, either to win social approval or bc they believe the other witnesses are right and they are wrong. However, the original memory never changes.
-Gabbert et al
12
Q
Whats a strength of research into misleading info?
(think real world application)
PEE
A
P- findings can be used by criminal justice system
E-consequences of EWT are detrimental. Loftus found tht leading questions can distort memory.
E-this can help police officers to be more careful about how they phrase questions during interviews w/ eye witnesses.
13
Q
how does anxiety have a negative effect on recall?
A
it creates physiological arousal in body which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse
14
Q
Outline Johnson and Scott’s procedure used to research the effect of the presence of a weapon on memory
-also mention what happened in the low and high anxiety condition
A
-participants believed they were taking part in a lab study.
-IN THE LOW ANXIETY CONDITION: seated in a waiting room ,participants heard a casual convo in the next room and then saw a man walk past them carrying a pen and grease on his hands.
-IN HIGH ANXIETY CONDITION: participants overheard a heated argument, heard breaking of glass, and then saw a man walk out of the room holding a knife covered in blood
15
Q
a) -what was found by johnson and scott? (2 things)
b)-what was concluded?
A
a)-participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos, 49% who’d seen man carrying pen were able to identify him.
-33% of participants who’d seen a man carrying blood-covered knife were able to correctly identify man
b) the tunnel theory of memory: argues tht ppl have enhanced memory for central events. weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this effect
16
Q
how does anxiety have a positive effect on recall?
A
-witnessing a stressful event creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
-the fight or flight response is triggered, increasing alertness.
-this may improve memory for the event as we become more aware of cues in the situation.
17
Q
outline the procedure yuille and cutshall used to investigate the posive effect of anxiety on recall
A
-study was on an actual shooting in a gun shop in canada wher the shop owner shot a theif dead. there were 21 witnesses- 13 took part in the study.
-they were interviewed 4 to 5 months after the incident and these interviews were compared with the original police interviews at the time of the shooting.
-accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account and witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident (on a 7 point scale) and whether they had any emotional problems since the event (eg sleeplessness)
18
Q
what 2 things did yullie and cutshall find when investigating the positive effects of anxiety on memory?
A
- the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount recalled or accuracy after 5mnths- though some details were less accurate, such as recollection of the colour of items and age/height/weight estimates.
- those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (abt 88% compared to 75% for the less stress group)
19
Q
what did yullie and cutshall conclude when investigating the positive effects of anxiety on memory?
A
that anxiety doesnt have a detrimental effect on the accuracy of eyewitness memory in a rea world context and may even enhance it
20
Q
what shape does the relationship between emotional arousal and performance look like on a graph?
A
an inverted U
21
Q
say what the yerkes-dodson law/ the inverted U theory states
A
it states that performance will increase with stress, but only up to a certain point, where it decreases drastically
22
Q
what did deffenbacher do to explain the contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety
A
he reviewed 21 studies on EWT and used the yerkes-dodson law to explain the findings
23
Q
how did deffenbacher use yerkes-dodson law to explain the contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety?
A
-when a crime/accident is witnessed, emotional (anxiety) and physiological changes (fight or flight response) are experienced.
-lower levels of anxiety/arousal produce lower levels of recall accuracy
-then, memory becomes more accurate as the level of anxiety/arousal increases.
-however, theres an optimal level of anxiety, which is the point of max accuracy. if a person experiences any more arousal, then their recall suffers a drastic decline.
24
Q
whats a limitation of johnson and scott’s study regarding poor internal validity? (unusualness rather than anxiety)
(PEE)
A
P- it may not have tested for anxiety. participants may have focused on weapon bc it was surprising or unusual not bc it made them scared.
E- Pickel conducted an experiment using scissors , a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand held items in a hair salon video (where scissors=high anxiety, low unusualness). it was found tht eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and handgun)
E- suggets tht the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety/threat. therefore, tells us nothing specifically abt the effects of anxiety on EWT
25
whats a strength of the view that anxiety has a negative effect on the accuracy of recall?
(PEE)
P- theres evidence to support the view
E- Valentine & Mesout’s study supports the research on weapon focus, finding negative effects on recall . researchers used an objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants into high and low anxiety groups. in this study anxiety clearly disrupted the participants’ ability to recall details abt the actor in london dungeon’s labyrinth.
E- this suggests tht a high level of anxiety does have a negative effect on the immediate eyewitness recall of a stressful event
26
whats a strength of the view that anxiety has a positive effect on the accuracy of recall?
(PEE)
P- theres evidence to support this view
E- christianson & hübinette interviewed 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in sweden. some of the witnesses were directly and others were indirectly involved. researchers found tht recall was more than 75% accurate across all witnesses. the direct victims (most anxious) were even more accurate.
E- these findings confirm tht anxiety doesnt reduce the accuracy of recall for eyewitnesses and may actually enhance it.
27
what are the 4 techniques that make up the Cognitive Interview?
-report everything
-reinstate the context
-reverse the order
-change perspective
28
who introduced the cognitive review? (there are two ppl)
-fisher
-& geiselman
29
define what fisher+geiselman meant by ‘report everything’ (as a cognitive interview technique)
witnesses r encouraged to include every single detail of event, even if it seems trivial. seemingly small details may be important and may trigger other important memories
30
define what fisher+geiselman meant by ‘reinstate the context’ (as a cognitive interview technique)
witness should return to the original scene by imagining the environment and their emotions at the time .
31
define what fisher+geiselman meant by ‘reverse the order’
(as a cognitive interview technique)
events should be recalled in a different order from the original sequence e.g from final point to beginning.
-this prevents ppl reporting their expectations if how the event must have happened rather than the actual events.
-it prevents dishonesty as its harder to produce an untruthful acc if they have to reverse it
32
define what fisher+geiselman meant by ‘change perspective’ (as a cognitive interview technique)
witness should recall the incident from the other ppl’s perspectives. eg how if would’ve appeared to the perpetrator. this is done to disrupt the effect of expectations.
33
what does fisher et al's enhanced cognitive interview focus on as an addition to cognitive interview ?
the social dynamics of the interaction (between an eyewitness and the interviewer)
34
wht are five aspects of the social dynamics of an interview/interaction tht the ehanced cognitive interview focus on?
-interviewer needs to know when to establish and relinquish eye contact
-reducing eyewitness anxiety
-minimising distractions
-getting the witness to speak slower
-ask open ended questions
35
whats a strength of the cognitive interview (CI)?
hint: think abt its effectivness
(PEE)
P- there's evidence tht supports its effectiveness/ tht it works
E- Eg a meta analysis by Kohnen et al combined data from 55 studies comparing the CI w/ the standard police interview. CI gave an avg 41% increase in accurate info compared w/ the standard interview. only 4 studies in the analysis showed no difference between the types of interview.
E- shows tht CI is an effective technique in helping witnesses to recall info .
36
whats a limitation of the cognitive interview (CI)?
hint: think abt the fact tht some parts are more helpful than others
(PEE)
P- not all of its elements are equally effective or useful
E- Milne and Bull found tht each of the 4 techniques used ALONE produce more info than the standard police interview. but also found tht using 'report everything' and 'reinstate the context' produced better recall than any other techniques or combo of them.
E- this confirmed police officers' suspicions tht some aspects of CI are more useful than others. this casts some doubt on the credibility of the overall CI.
37
whats a limitation of the cognitive interview (CI)?
hint: 'time-consuming', 'requires a lot of training'
(PEE)
P- its time consuming and requires a lot of training so officers may be less willing to use CI instead of standard police interview
E- e.g more time is needed 2 establish rapport w/ witness and allow them to relax. CI also requires special training and many forces don't have the resources to provide more than a few hours.
E- suggests tht the complete CI as it exists isnt a realistic method 4 police officers 2.
38
define what is meant by the term ‘coding’
its the format in which info is stored in the various memory stores
39
define what is meant by the term ‘capacity’
the amount of info that can be held in a memory store
40
define what is meant by ‘duration’
the length of time info can be held in memory
41
what is short term memory
the limited-capacity memory store.
42
list 3 things about STM (short term memory) regarding the coding of info in this store, its capacity and the duration of info in the store
-coding is mainly acoustic (sounds)
-capacity is between 5 and 9 items on average
-duration is between about 18 and 30 seconds
43
what is the long term memory store?
the permanent memory store
44
list 3 things about LTM (long term memory) regarding:
-how info is coded in this store
-its capacity
-and how long the LTM stores info for
-coding is mainly semantic (the meaning of the information)
-has unlimited capacity
-can store memories for up to a lifetime
45
explain how coding works
its a process where info is converted from one form to another
46
outline baddeley’s research on coding
-4 groups were given different lists of words to remember.
-group 1 got acoustically similar words, group 2 got acoustically dissimilar words, group 3- semantically similar words (synonymous words) and group 4- semantically dissimilar words e.g good, huge, hot
-participants were shown the words from their list and asked to recall them in the correct order
47
what was found in baddeley’s research on coding and what could be suggested?
-when recalling info from STM, participants tended to do worse with acoustically similar words
-when recalling from LTM, participants did worse recalling semantically similar words
-it suggests tht info is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM
48
how did Jacobs investigate how much information STM can hold at one time?
by measuring digit span.
49
how did jacobs measure digit span (2 things to mention) and what was found?
-the researcher reads out 4 digits and participants recall these out loud in the correct order.
-if this is correct the researcher reads out 5 digits and so on until the participant can’t recall the order correctly. this indicates the individual’s digit span
-the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items. the mean span for letters was 7.3
50
outline the research that Peterson and Peterson conducted on the duration of STM (3 things to mention)
- mention what the findings and conclusions/suggestions were
-24 students in 8 trials each were tested and in each trial, student was given a consonant syllable ( eg. YCH) to remember. they were also given a 3 digit number.
-students counted back form that number until told to stop. this was to prevent any mental rehearsal of the consonant syllable.
-on each trial, they were told to stop after varying periods of time; 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds (the retention interval). The findings were similar
-after 3 secs, avg recall was about 80%, after 18 secs it was abut 3%. suggesting that STM duration may be about 18 secs, unless info is repeated over and over (eg thru verbal rehearsal)
51
outline the research that Bahrick et al conducted on the duration of LTM (2 things to mention)
- mention what the findings (2 key things)
-and conclusion/suggestion were
-392 american participants aged between 17-74 were studied and high skl year books were obtained from participants or directly from some skills.
-recall was tested in various ways, including:
1) photo recognition test consisting of 50 photos, some from the participants’ high skl yearbooks
2) free recall test where participants recalled all the names of their graduating class
-participants tested within 15 yrs of graduation were abt 90% accurate in photo recognition. after 48 years, recall declined to abt 70% for photo recognition.
-free recall was less accurate than recognition- abt 60% after 15 years, dropping to 30% after 48 years.
-suggested/showed tht LTM may last up to a lifetime for some material
52
what’s a strength of baddeley’s research regarding separates memory stores? (STM)
P: it identified a clear difference between two memory stores
E: although later research has shown exceptions to baddeley’s research, the idea that STM uses mostly acoustic coding and LTM uses mostly semantic is still agreed with.
E: this research was an important step in understanding the memory system, which led to the multi-store model
53
what’s a weakness of baddeley’s research regarding artificial stimuli? (STM)
P: it used quite artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material
E: eg. words had no personal meaning to participants. so the findings can’t explain much about coding in different kinds of memory tasks, especially in daily life. for instance, when processing more meaningful info,ppl may use semantic coding even for STM tasks.
E: suggests tht the findings from this study have limited application
54
what’s a strength of Jacobs’ study regarding its replicablity? (STM)
P: it has been replicated.
E: despite this study being very old and early research often lacked adequate controls , Jacobs’ findings have been confirmed by other, better controlled studies since then (eg. Bopp et al)
E: Suggest that Jacobs’ study is a valid test of digit span in STM
55
what’s a (the) limitation of Miller’s research on STM?
P: The capacity of STM may have been overestimated
E: research has shown and concluded tht the capacity of STM is only at 4 (plus or minus 1) chunks..
E: suggests tht the lower end of miller’ estimate (5 items) is more accurate than (7 items)
56
What’s a limitation of Peterson et el’s study regarding the type of stimuli used?
P: the stimulus material was artificial
E: recalling consonant syllables doesn’t reflect most everyday memory ctivies where important info is trying to be remembered.
E: suggests tht study lacks external validity
57
what’s a strength of Bahrick et al’s study regarding its external validity?
P: it has high external validity
E: bc the researchers investigated meaningful memories (ie ppl’s names and faces). when research was conducted on LTM using meaningless images, recall was much lower
E: suggests tht bahrick et al’s findings reflect a more ‘real’ estimate of the duration of LTM.
58
who created the multi store model?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
59
what does the multi store model do? (2 things)
-it represents how memory works in terms of 3 stores called the sensory register , short term memory and long term memory.
-it describes how info is transferred from one store to another, what makes some memories last and some disappear
60
according to the multi store model, all stimuli from the environment passes into the wht?
sensory register
61
what type of information does the iconic memory store (multi store model)
visual info
62
what type of information does the echoic memory store (multi store model)
acoustic/ audial info
63
TRUE OR FALSE: there are NO other sensory stores other than iconic and echoic (multi store model)
FALSE- there are other stores and they are for touch, taste and smell information
64
how long is the duration of material in the sensory registers? (multi store model)
less than half a second
65
(multi store model) complete the sentence and give an example of evidence that would support the statement:
"the sensory registers have a very _____ capacity"
"the sensory registers have a very HIGH capacity"
-each eye has millions of cells which all store visual data
66
what does attention allow information to do? (multi store model)
allows it to pass further into the memory system
67
how is the majority of info in short term memory coded and how long does it last for?
-acoustically
-abt 18 secs (unless info is rehearsed)
68
what is maintenance rehearsal?
when material/info is repeated/rehearsed continuously
69
finish the sentence: "short term memory is more of a ______ store"
short term memory is more of a TEMPORARY store
70
"long term memory is a potentially ______ store for information that has been ______ for a _____ time"
long term memory is a potentially PERMANENT store for information that has been REHEARESED for a PROLONGED time
71
how are long term memories coded ?
semantically
72
what is the a) duration and b) capacity of LTM thought to be?
a) a lifetime
b) unlimited
73
according to the multi store model how is information recalled from long term memory?
by it being transferred back to short term memory by retrieval
74
what's a strength of the multi store model (MSM) regarding research that supports it suggestion about short and long term memory stores ?
P: there's research tht shows that LTM and STM are different
E: eg Baddeley found tht similar sounding words tend to get mixed up when using STM and words with similar meanings tend to get mixed up when using LTM.
E: studies such as this clearly show tht STM and LTM are separate, independent memory stores as suggested by the MSM
75
What's a limitation of the Multi-Store Model of memory in explaining everyday memory use? (PEE)
P: It may not be a valid model of how memory works in daily life.
E: Because, despite many studies supporting the Multi-Store Model (MSM), many of them did not use real-world materials such as people's faces, names, facts, and places.
E: This suggests that the MSM may not be able to explain how memory is used to retain more practical, everyday information.
76
What's a limitation of the Multi-Store Model of memory regarding the types of information it explains?
P: the MSM doesn't fully explain the encoding of different types of information.
E:The model suggests that information is processed the same way, regardless of whether it's visual, auditory, or semantic.
E: However, research shows that different types of information are encoded and retrieved in distinct ways, which the MSM fails to consider.
77
who proposed that there where three types of long term memory because the MSM (multistore model) was too simplistic?
Tulving
78
what does episodic memory refer to?
the ability to recall personal events
79
what does episodic memory consists of/include?
-memories of how events occurred and the people, objects, places and behaviours involved.
80
complete the sentence: " memories from this store have to be retrieved ________ and with _______"
memories from this store have to be retrieved CONSIOUSLY and with EFFORT
81
-what does semantic memory contain?
-what does it include? (2 things)
-shared knowledge of the world
-facts and knowledge of what words and concepts mean
82
do memories from the semantic memory store need to be recalled deliberately?
YES.
83
-what does procedural memory store?
-what does it include?
-one's knowledge on how to do things.
-it includes memories of learned skills
84
finish the sentence: "memories from procedural memory can be recalled..."
memories from procedural memory can be recalled WITHOUT MAKING A CONCIOUS/DELIBERATE EFFORT
85
What's the difference between episodic and semantic memory?
Episodic memory stores personal events and experiences, while semantic memory stores general facts and knowledge.
86
What's the difference between episodic memory and procedural memory?
Episodic memory stores personal experiences, while procedural memory stores learned skills and actions
87
How does semantic memory differ from procedural memory?
Semantic memory stores facts and knowledge, while procedural memory stores skills and actions
88
Give an example of an event stored in episodic memory.
my 16th birthday
89
Give an example of knowledge stored in semantic memory- think Paris and France
knowing that Paris is the capital of France
90
Give an example of a skill or action stored in procedural memory. think bikes
knowing how to ride a bike
91
according to Miller, what is the capacity of STM?
7 +/- 2 items
92
What is a strength of the three types of long term memory regarding a distinction that was made between episodic and semantic memories due to research ?
P: there’s neurological research/evidence to support it
E: Peterson et al found they are recalled from different areas of the prefrontal cortex
E: supports the idea that LTM types have distinct biological bases
93
what a strength of the three types of long term memory regarding the fact that there are case studies supporting the existence of LTM
P: case studies supporting the existence of separate LTM stores.
E: HM and Clive Wearing lost episodic memory but retained procedural and semantic memory
E: shows that different types of LTM rely on distinct brain areas.
94
what does the woking memory model (WMM) suggest abt wht the short term memory store is made up of?
-the central executive
-the phonological loop
-the visio-spatial sketchpad
-the episodic buffer.
95
what's the central executive?
the component of the woring memory model that co-ordinates the activities of the 3 subsystems/slave systems in memory.
96
what is the role of the central executive?
to monitor incoming data, focuses and divdes attention and allocates subsystems to tasks
97
finish the sentence: "the central executive has a very _______ processing capacity and doesn't store _______"
-LIMITED
-INFORMATION
98
what are the three sub systems?
-the phonological loop
-the visuo-spatial sketchpad
-the episodic buffer
99
whats a strength of Tulving's research into the different types of LTM regarding real world application?
## Footnote
think 'elderly people and research into the types of memory specifically episodic memory'
P: its helped psychologists to understand diff types of memory, enabling them to help ppl w/ memory problems.
E: Eg elderly ppl may experience memory loss but research's shown tht it (memory loss) mainly affects their recent personal experiences/memories, rather than memories from a long time ago. Belleville et al. found that training improved older adults’ episodic memory compared to a control group.
E:This shows that identifying types of LTM helps develop targeted treatments (supporting Tulving’s theory.)
100
which of the subsystems in the working memory model deal with auditory info?
the phonological loop
101
what are the the TWO functions of the phonological loop?
- to process info in terms of sound which includes both written and spoken material
- to preserve the order in which info arrives
102
what two parts is the phonological loop separated into?
- phonological store
- the articulatory store
103
what does the phonological store do?
| * the phonological STORE not the phonological *loop* mind you
stores the words that are heard
104
what does the articulatory process do?
it allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds or words to keep them in working memory while they're needed)
105
what's the capacity of maintenance rehearsal thought to be ?
two seconds work of what you can say
106
who suggested the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
107
according to the WMM, which of the subsystems process and stores visual and spatial info
the visuo-spatial sketchpad
108
according to Baddeley, what's the capacity of the VSS (visuo spatial sketchpad)?
"its about [insert number] or [insert number] objects"
3 or 4 objects
109
Logie divided the VSS (visuo-spatial sketchpad) into 2 parts.
outline the name of these 2 parts and their roles.
-the visual cache;
* this stores visual data
-the inner scribe;
* this records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
110
right now, visualise how many windows there are on/at the front of your house.
according to the WMM, which subsystem would you have used to calculate this?
the visuo-spatial sketchpad
111
what is the the episodic buffer?
(2 things)
a temporary store for info and a storage component of the central executive
112
what does the episodic buffer do?
(2 things)
-it integrates visual, spatial and verbal info processed by other subsystems to maintain a sense of time sequencing.
i.e it records the events that are happening
-links working memory to LTM + wider cognitive process such as perception.
113
what is the WMM?
(not asking wht it suggests/argues)
a representation of STM
114
what does the WMM suggest?
tht STM's a dynamic processor of diff types of info using subsystems co-ordinated by a central decision making system
115
whats a strength of the WMM? (research support)
P: there's research support from shallice et al on the case study of patient KF
E: it was found tht post-brain injury, KF's immediate recall of letters + digits was better when he read them than when he heard them (i.e they were read TO HIM). this showed tht his phonological loop was damaged but is visuo-spatial sketchpad was intact
E: this finding strongly supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores
116
whats a strength of the WMM? regarding studies of dual task-performances
P: these studies support the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad
E: when baddeley's ppes did a visual+verbal task at the same time or did them separately, the performance outcomes were similar 2 each other. but when both tasks were visual (or both were verbal), performance declined drastically.
E: this was bc both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem (the visuo-spatial sketchpad) whereas there's no competition when performing a visual + verbal task. this shows tht there must be a separate subsystem tht processes visual input- the visuo-spatial sketchpad (+ one 4 verbal processing)
116
whts a limitation of the WMM regarding the central executive?
P: there's a lack of clarity on the role of the central executive
E: It’s described vaguely as simply ‘attention,’ but some psychologists argue it may consist of multiple subcomponents.
E: This makes the explanation of the central executive’s role incomplete, which weakens the overall validity of the WMM.
117
explain how forgetting occurs due to interference.
i.e wht does interference mean?
its (or forgetting occurs) bc / when 2 pieces of information disrupt each other, it results in/resulting in the forgetting of one or both pieces of info , or some distortion of memory
118
why are LTMs forgotten?
- "bc the memories can't..."
-"interference between memories makes it...."
- bc the memories can't be accessed even though they are available.
- interference between memories makes it harder to locate these memories so forgetting occurs
119
define wht 'proactive interference' is
when an older memory interferes with a newer one
120
which kind of interference is occurring here?
you've been so used to eating your chicken b4 your chips that when you're around one aunty who you know expects you to eat your chips before your chicken you accidently reach for the chicken instead
proactive!
121
define wht ' retroactive interference' is
when a newer memory interferes with an old one
122
which kind of interference is occurring here?
since you've been going to school at st stephens, youve become so used to not worrying about crossing the white line. suddenly, you have to start going to school at st bedes again but on the playground, you forgot NOT to cross the white line when the whistle blew!!
retroactive!
123
fill in the blanks: ' McGeoch and McDonald found tht interference was _____ when memories were similar '
' McGeoch and McDonald found tht interference was WORSE when memories were similar '
124
-outline McGeoch and McDonald's study into retroactive interference (3 points)
- participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they were remembered w/ 100% accuracy
- ppes were put into 6 groups with each group having to learn a new list, different to the other groups:
- participants then had to recall the original list of words.
Group 1, who learned the list with the most similar material (synonyms), had the worst recall. Group 5, who learned the most irrelevant material (numbers), had the best recall, apart from the control group.
125
-what was found in McGeoch and McDonald's study into retroactive interference ?
- what can be concluded?
-tht Group 1, who learned the list with the most similar material (synonyms), had the worst recall.
Group 5, who learned the most irrelevant material (numbers), had the best recall, apart from the control group.
-this shows that interference is strongest when the memories are (more) similar
126
What is one strength of interference theory as an explanation for forgetting?
P: the theory's supported by reliable evidence.
E: In their lab experiment McGeoch + McDonald found that when participants learned a second list of similar words, recall of the first list worsened.
E: As this was found in a controlled lab study which would also have high internal validity, the findings are reliable.
127
What's a limitation of interference theory as an explanation for forgetting?
regarding the materials that were used in the study which wouldve been used as supporting evidence 4 the theory- think ecological validity, a certain type of...
P: it lacks mundane realism
E:McGeoch + McDonald had used artificial materials like word lists when trying to provide evidence to support interference theory which would've lack the complexity of real-life memories such as faces, events, or emotions.
E: This matters because it reduces ecological validity of the findings, so the interference explanation may not apply to everyday forgetting.
128
What's a limitation of interference theory as an explanation for forgetting due to findings from a study that use retrieval cues to reduce forgetting?
think: tulving and psotka
P: interference effects may be overcome with cues.
E: Tulving and Psotka found that when ppes were given category cues, recall began 2 improve again suggesting tht memories weren't lost but temporarily inaccessible.
E: This shows tht interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility 2 material in LTM, but this wasn't predicted by interference theory
129
define 'retrieval failure' as an explanation for forgetting
"retrieval failure is when..."
when info is in LTM, but can't be accessed. although the info's available (i.e. it is still stored) it's not accessible (i.e. it can't be retrieved) bc the retrieval cues aren't present.
130
define what a 'cue' is
its a 'trigger' of info that enables memory to be accessed. they either carry meaning or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning.
131
who proposed the encoding specificity principle?
Tulving
132
what does the encoding specificity principle state abt cues?
that a (helpful) cue has to be both present at encoding (when material's learnt) and present at retrieval (when tyring to recall the material)
133
according to the encoding specificity principle, what happens if the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different from each other?
forgetting may occur
134
what are the types of two non-meaningful cues?
- context-dependent forgetting
- state-dependent forgetting
135
define what's meant by context-dependent forgetting
recall dependent on an external cue (e.g weather or a place)
136
define what's meant by state-dependent forgetting
recall dependent on an internal cue (e.g feeling upset, being drunk)
137
Godden + Baddeley conducted research on context-dependent forgetting.
outline their procedure:
*"to see if training on land helped or hindered the work that deep-sea divers did underwater, the divers were asked to..."*
there are 2 points after this sentence but the 2nd point is a bit longer as you need to recall all 4 conditions ; )
to see if training on land helped or hindered the work that deep-sea divers did underwater, the divers were asked to...
* learn a list of words either underwater or on land
* were then asked to recall the words either underwater or on land which created 4 conditions:
1. learn on land, recall on land
2. learn on land, recall underwater
3. learn underwater, recall underwater
4. learn underwater, recall on land
138
Godden + Baddeley conducted research on CONTEXT-dependent forgetting.
outline their:
a) FINDING and
b) CONCLUSION
a) accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions.
b) they concluded that retrieval failure occurred as the external cues available at learning differed from the ones available at recall.
139
Carter and Cassaday conducted research on STATE-dependent forgetting.
outline their procedure:
there's 3 points and 3rd point requires tht u state all 4 conditions
* they gave (antihistamine) drugs to ppes that had a mild sedative effect making ppes slightly drowsy, creating an internal physiological state different from the 'normal' state of being awake/alert.
* ppes had to learn a list of words and passages of prose and then recall info.
* 4 conditions were created:
1. learn on drugs, recall on drugs
2. learn on drugs, recall when not on drugs
3. learn when not on drugs, recall on drugs
4. learn when not on drugs, recall when not on drugs
140
Carter and Cassaday conducted research on STATE-dependent forgetting.
outline their:
a) finding
b) conclusion
a) in conditions were there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse.
b) it was concluded that when cues are absent e.g being drowsy when learning info but alert when recalling it, there's more forgetting.
141
whats a strength of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting regarding real life situations?
P: there is good real-world application to the theory.
E: e.g studying for exams should be conducted in the same room in which the exam is to take place to aid recall
E: This means that the theory has good external validity
142
whats a limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting regarding the fact that the CONCLUSIONS made based on the theory may lack external validity?
P: the effects of context in forgetting may be less important in real life than research suggests.
E: Baddeley argued that context effects are only strong when the contexts are vastly different, such as land versus underwater, which rarely occurs in everyday memory.
E: This means tht retrieval failure may not be a major cause of forgetting in most day-to-day situations.
143
whats a limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting regarding the fact that it can't explain why/how other forms of forgetting e.g interference occur?
P: retrieval failure can't explain all cases of forgetting.
E: e.g. forgetting due to interference can't be explained by absence of cues, as it occurs when similar information disrupts recall even when cues are available.
E: This indicates tht retrieval failure's an incomplete explanation and may need to be considered alongside other theories of forgetting.
144
what's a limitation of the substitution explanation?
(eyewitness testimony: misleading information)
P: there's evidence tht challenges it.
E: Sutherland and Hayne found that after misleading questions, recall of central details stayed accurate but peripheral details were changed, suggesting the original memory isn’t fully replaced.
E: This challenges the substitution explanation's claim that misleading information always replaces the original memory, suggesting it may only affect memory retrieval instead.
145
What is a limitation of misleading information as a factor affecting eyewitness testimony?
think abt individual differences (i.e age)
P: Not everyone is equally affected by misleading information.
E: Anastasi & Rhodes found older adults were more likely to be influenced by misleading information than younger adults.
E: This shows tht the effects of misleading information aren't universal, and other factors (such as age) can influence EWT accuracy.
