approaches: origins of psycholgy Flashcards
list the 8 stages of psychology’s philosophical roots from earliest to most recent
(list people where applicable)
1-Wundt: opened 1st experimental psychology lab in germany
2- Freud: established psychodynamic approach
3-Watson and Skinner : establish the behaviourist approach
4-Rogers and Maslow: develop the humanistic approach
5-the cognitive approach
6-Bandura: social learning theory
7-the biological approach
8-cognitive neuroscience
what does Cartesian dualism suggest?
that the mind and body are independent from each other
who suggested Cartesian dualism?
Descartes
what concept did Locke propose?
empiricism
explain the concept of empiricism
experience is obtained through the senses and that human don’t inherit knowledge or instincts
what is the behaviourist approach?
a learning approach that suggests that all kids are born as a ‘tabula rasa’ (blank slates), learning thru their interactions with their environment
who created the evolutionary theory?
darwin
what does the evolutionary theory suggest?
(i’ve broken this down into three parts)
-that all human and animal behaviour has changed over successive generations so that individuals with stronger more adaptive genes survive and reproduce
-the individuals with weaker genes don’t survive and reproduce
-so the weaker genes are ‘weeded out’ (survival of the fittest).
what does experimental psychology define psychology as?
a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy.
what does wundt do and what impact does this have on psychology?
-(he) wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab in germany
-this causes psychology to emerge as a distinct discipline in its own right
what was the name of the book that Freud wrote and what approach is established bc of this?
-the interpretation of dreams
-the psychodynamic approach
what did freud emphasise/focus on? what did he argue?
- the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour
-that physical problems could be explained in terms of conflict within the mind
what was the name used to describe Freud’s personal centred therapy?
psychoanalysis
what did skinner do?
“they established the..”
the behaviourist approach
rogers and maslow developed what approach?
the humanistic approach
what does the humanistic approach suggest?
that self determination and free will should be valued rather than assuming that human behaviour isn’t determined by the individual.
what does the cognitive approach do to psychology?
reintroduces the study of mental processes but in a much more scientific way than wundt’s investigations
what changes in society brought about the cognitive approach? and how did this help psychologists?
- the introduction of digital computers
- this gave psychologists a metaphor for the human operations of the human mind
who proposed the social learning theory?
Bandura
what theory did Bandura propose?
the social learning theory
explain/ define what social learning theory is
a learning approach that combines behaviourist ideas of learning through our environment and cognitive ideas of the involvement of mental processes. it suggests that new behaviours can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
from 1980s onwards, what type of approach had become the dominant scientific perspective in psychology?
a) biological
b)behaviourist
c)humanistic
a
why did the biological approach become the dominant scientific perspective in the 1980s?
because of advances in technology tht led to increased understanding of the brain and the biological processes
when did cognitive neuroscience become a distinct discipline?
towards the end of the last century
what’s a strength of wundt’s work? regarding his methodology
(PEE)
P- some of his methods were systematic and well controlled
E- introspections were recorded in a lab, ensuring that possible extraneous variables weren’t a factor. procedures and instructions were as
E-
what is a strength of SLT (social learning theory) regarding cognitive factors
P- it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning
E- neither classical or operant conditioning offer an adequate account of learning individually. humans and animals store information abt the behaviour of others and use this to make judgments abt when its appropriate to perform certain actions
E- suggests tht SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of meditational processes (the process of thinking/deciding about whether or not to do something)
give a weakness of the SLT approach regarding its lack of focus on biological factors
P-SLT has been criticised for making little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.
E- although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment. howvever, recent research suggests that observational learning, may be the result of mirror neurones in the brain, which allow us to empathise w/ and imitate other people
E- suggests that biological influences on social learning were overlooked in SLT
what was bandura’s aim in his 1961 bobo doll study?
to investigate whether children can learn behaviours just from watching adults
(bandura’s bobo doll study 1961)
what was bandura’s hypotheses about the bobo doll study?
that children who will watch the adult model act aggressively towards a bobo doll would imitate their behaviour when given a chance to play with the same doll
(bandura’s bobo doll study 1961)
outline the procedure of bandura’s bobo doll study
- 72 children, half boys half girls, aged 3-6 from a nursey participated in this laboratory experiment. The mean age was 4.4 years old
- A matched pair design was used when dividing participants into the 3 experimental groups.
o Group 1- 24 observed an aggressive adult/role model
o Group 2- 24 observed a non-aggressive adult/role model
o Group 3- 24 observed no one (the control group) - Children were first assessed for their aggression levels by two observers and divided into groups in a way that ensured similar levels of aggression across groups.
- Each group consisted of 12 girls and 12 boys
(bandura’s bobo doll study 1961)
what was found in bandura’s bobo doll study study regarding the gender of the adult/ rolde model?
(2 things)
- Girls displayed more physical aggression after watching an aggressive male model but showed more verbal aggression when the model was female
- Boys imitated the aggressive male models more than when observing female models.
(bandura’s bobo doll study 1961)
what was found in bandura’s bobo doll study study regarding the gender of the children? in other words- wht were the differences between boys and girls?
(2 things)
- Boys showed more physical aggression than girls
- Verbal aggression was similar for girls and boys
what group was found to have displayed the most aggressive behaviour? (gender doesn’t need to be mentioned here)
(bandura’s bobo doll study 1961)
The group that saw an aggressive model displayed the most aggressive behaviour compared to the other groups
what types of aggression did the children who observed aggressive behaviour exhibit? (bandura’s bobo doll study 1961)
they displayed both imitative and non-imitative aggression (aggressive acts tht weren’t displayed by the model)
what did bandura conclude from the 1961 bobo study?
-that children could learn from the observation of adult models.
-Children tended to imitate what they saw the adult model do. suggesting that learning can occur without reinforcement (rewards and punishments).
give a strength of bandura’s bobo doll study 1961 regarding its control
P- it was highly controlled
E- as it was conducted in a laboratory where researchers could carefully manipulate the variables
E- this allows researchers to establish the cause and effect better
give a weakness of bandura’s bobo doll study 1961 regarding its ecological validity (what type are we talking about here?)
P- it lacks mundane realism
E- bc it took place in a lab and not in a real life setting
E- so it can’t be established whether or not children would behave like this in real life
give a weakness of bandura’s bobo doll study 1961 regarding its ethicality
P- it raises ethical issues
E- bc kids are deliberately being taught to be violent
E- this issue makes harder to repeat the study
define the term ‘schema’
it is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information
what is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
who in the 1860s identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production, marking the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?
a)broca
b)bandura
c)bowlby
a- paul BROCA
what is a strength of the cognitive approach regarding its use of scientific methods
PEE
P- it uses objective, scientific methods
E- this approach uses highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work.this has involved use of lab studies to produce reliable data.
E- meaning tht the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis
what is the biological approach? “an approach that…”
an approach that emphasises the importance of physical process in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
what does neurochemistry refers to?
the action of chemicals in the brain
what’s a genotype?
the particular set of genes tht a person has
what’s a phenotype?
characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
define what’s meant by the term ‘imitation’
a form of learning as suggested by SLT (social learning theory), which proposes that people learn through copying the behaviour of a role model they identify with
define what’s meant by the term ‘identification’ according to social learning theory (SLT)
According to SLT, it’s a form of learning which suggests tht humans can learn by observing role models whom they perceive as similar to themselves. It suggests we internalise the beliefs of someone we “identify” with i.e are similar to due to gender, age or goals (for eg)
define what’s meant by the term ‘modelling’
when a role model enacts a behaviour tht can be imitated by an observer
define what’s meant by the term ‘vicarious reinforcement ’
indirect encouragement of behaviour thru observation of consequences for other peoples’ behaviour
define what’s meant by the term ‘meditational processes’
internal processes (i.e thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
what were the four mental (or mediational) processes in learning tht Bandura identified?
try to say them in order
1)attention
2)retention
3)motor reproduction
4)motivation
define what’s meant by ‘attention’ as an mediational process (SLT)
the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
define what’s meant by ‘retention’ as an mediational process (SLT)
how well the behaviour is remembered
define what’s meant by ‘motor reproduction’ as an mediational process (SLT)
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
define what’s meant by ‘motivation’ as an mediational process (SLT)
the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
define the term ‘classical conditioning’
learning tht occurs by associating a naturally occurring instinct w/ new stimuli, thus creating a “conditioned” response
define the term ‘operant conditioning’
a form of learning by direct consequences for behaviour, whether tht be reinforcement (consequences that increase behaviour) or punishment (consequences that decrease behaviour)
define the term ‘negative reinforcement’
a behaviour performed in response to a negative stimulus with the expectation tht the negative stimulus will be removed
explain how negative reinforcement may occur. Use the example of a father comforting his crying child
dad learns to comfort their child again and again (reinforced behaviour), to avoid the child crying (crying- negative stimulus)
define the term ‘positive reinforcement’
the receiving of a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
what is the difference between positive or negative reinforcement and punishment?
reinforcement, whether positive or negative, increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated whereas punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
how did pavlov demonstrate how dogs could be conditioned to salivate upon hearing a bell?
(the 4 steps/moments/parts of the conditioning)
1- b4 conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) produced and unconditioned response (salivation)
2-during conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (a bell) to produce the same unconditioned response of salivation
3-an association was made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus
4-after conditioning, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response of salivation
-explain what skinner’s box is
“its a demonstration skinner used to show…”
-what animal did he use?
-the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement
-a rat
how was POSITIVE reinforcement shown using skinner’s box?
when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards
how was NEGATIVE reinforcement shown using skinner’s box?
when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock
What’s a strength of the behaviourist approach regarding the way research within this approach is conducted?
P: its based on well controlled research
E: Behaviourist focused on the measurement of observable behaviours within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause and effect relationships to be established
E: This suggests tht behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
what is the cognitive approach?
it’s an approach that focuses on how mental processes (eg thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour.
what are internal mental processes?
‘private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention tht mediate between stimulus and response.
-what are the assumptions/arguments of the cognitive approach?
(three things to mention)
-also, bonus points mention what approach it contrasts to?
-The cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
-It investigates areas of human behaviour neglected by behaviourism, like memory, perception, and thinking.
-Since these processes are private and unobservable, psychologists make inferences based on behaviour.
Bonus: It contrasts with the behaviourist approach, which focuses solely on observable behaviour.
what’s a strength of the behaviourist approach regarding how it can be applied in life?
P: the principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems
E: eg operant conditioning is used successfully in institutions eg prisons or psychiatric wards where appropriate behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges E:this increases the value of the behaviourist approach bc it has widespread application
what does schema enable ppl to do?
process lots of information quickly which acts as a mental shortcut tht prevents overwhelm from external stimuli
whats a bad thing about schema?
it may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
what are two models tht cognitive psychologists use to help them understand internal processes?
theoretical and computer models
what is the information processing approach? and wht does it suggest?(within the cognitive approach)
a key theoretical model which suggests that info flows thru the cognitive system in a sequence of stages (input, storage and retrieval etc)
what is the information processing approach based on?
the way tht computers function
give two examples of advances in brain imaging techniques that have occurred within the last 25 years
MRI and PET scans
outline the emergence of cognitive neuroscience (2points to make)
- Broca identified how damage to an area of frontal lobe could permanently damage speech production
- advances in brain imaging techniques have enabled scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. eg Buckner+Peterson were able to show how episodic and semantic memory may be located on opposing sides of the prefrontal cortex
-what is ‘brain fingerprinting’?
-how might it be used in the future?
-mind mapping techniques
-to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether or not theyre lying in court
whats a weaknesses of the cognitive approach regarding what its based on?
P: its based on machine reductionism
E: although there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer, the computer analogy has been criticised as it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how it may affect ability to process info.
E: suggests tht machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
What’s a strength of the cognitive approach regarding how it can be applied irl?
P: it has real-world applications.
E: e.g, cognitive psychology has contributed to AI by influencing the development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots). It has also been applied to the treatment of depression and has improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
E: so it demonstrates that the cognitive approach is not just theoretical but has practical uses that can benefit society, such as advancements in technology and improvements in mental health treatments.
what’s a limitation of the behaviourist approach regarding its ethicality?
P: procedures such as skinner’s box caused a lot of physical harm to animals
E: animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry
E: therefore, a lot of behaviourist research would be seen as ethical
define what’s meant by inference?
the process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental process processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
define what the endocrine system does
it works with nervous system to control vital functions in the body. it instructs glands to release hormones directly into bloodstream, which a carried towards target organs in the body. it communicates using chemicals
what is a gland?
an organ that synthesises (makes) substances such as hormones
what hormone does the thyroid gland produce and what is its function?
thyroxine
-affects/increases heart rate and affects metabolism, which in turn affects growth rates
define what hormones are
chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organ. theyre produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. their effects are very powerful
explain what the fight or flight response is
the way an animal responds when stressed. the body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor or,in some cases, flee.
what is adrenaline
a hormone produced by the adrenal gland which is part of the human body’s immediate stress response system.
what 3 things does adrenaline do to the cells of the cardiovascular system?
-stimulates heart rate
-contracts blood vessels
- dilates air passages
what is the pituitary gland referred to as and what does it do?
-the master gland
-it controls the release of hormones from all other endocrine glands in the body
explain how the endocrine system and the automatic nervous system work together during a stressful event in 2 steps
- how fast does this all occur + fill in blanks: “ its an _________ response and _______ reaction in the body”
1- when stressor’s perceived (eg a friend jumps out to scare you), hypothalamus activates pituitary gland nd this triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of ANS. ANS then changes from parasympathetic to sympathetic state
2- adrenaline is released from adrenal medulla into bloodstream. adrenaline triggers physiological changes in the body (eg increased heart rate) which creates the physiological arousal necessary for fight or flight response.
-this all happens as soon (immediately) as threat is detected. its an acute response and automatic reaction in the body.
state 6 biological changes associated with the SYMPATHETIC state
-increases heart rate
-increases breathing rate
-dilates pupils
-inhibits digestion
-inhibits saliva production
-contracts rectum
state 6 biological changes associated with the PARASYMPATHETIC state
-decreases heart rate
-decreases breathing rate
-constricts pupils
-stimulates digestion
-stimulates saliva production
-relaxes rectum
once a threat has passed, what does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
returns the body to its resting state.
explain what the rest and digest response refers to
when the parasympathetic system reduces the activities of the body that were increased by the actions of the sympathetic branch
what is the biological approach?
an approach that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
define wht genes are
they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (e.g eye colour+height) and psychological features (eg mental disorder, intelligence)
what does neurochemistry refer to ?
the action of chemicals in the brain
whats a genotype?
the particular set of genes that a person possesses
whts a phenotype?
the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
define wht evolution is
the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
what does the biological approach suggest?
everything psychological is at first biological so to understand human behaviour, biological structures and processes within the body must be looked at
how does the biological approach contrast with the cognitive one?
biological approach believes that the mind lives in the brain so all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis. whereas, cognitive approach sees mind as separate from the brain
give an example of a mental disorder that occurs due to an imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain.
-low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD
-overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia
in the biological approach,
-what is used to investigate whether certain psychological traits have a genetic basis?
-how is it used?
-twin studies
-in twin studies, if a characteristic is genetic we would expect all identical twins to be concordant. whereas, with non identical twins, the concordance rate would be 50%. in both cases, environment would be the same
define what’s meant by a concordance rate ?
the extent to which twins share the same characteristic
whats the difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?
in terms of wht type of twins they are and their genetics
monozygotic= identical twins sharing 100% of the same genes
dizygotic= non-identical twins sharing 50% of the same genes
explain the theory of natural selection
any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival (and reproduction) will continue in future generations
whats a strength of the biological approach regarding its real life appilcation?
P: It has real world application
E: the use of psychoactive drugs 2 treat serious mental disorders bc of increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain. Eg- antidepressant drugs increase levels of serotonin in the brain. such drugs help to reduce depressive symptoms.
E: meaning tht ppl with depression may be better able to manage their condition and reduce amount of time spent in hospital
whts a strength of the biological approach regarding the methods used for investigations?
P: it uses scientific methods of investigation
E: to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, this approach uses various precise and objectie methods. includes techniques like fMRISs and EEGs. these technological advances makes accurately measuring physiological and neural processes in ways tht arent biased possible
E: meaning tht much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data
whats a limitation of the biological approach regarding biological determinism?
P: it’s determinist
E: bc it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes that cant be controlled . but the way an individual’s genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment
E: suggests tht the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
