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memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the process of changing information into a form that can be held in the brain?

A

Encoding

Encoding is the first step in the memory process.

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2
Q

What type of encoding involves changing information by how it looks?

A

Visual encoding

This type of encoding focuses on the appearance of information.

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3
Q

What type of encoding is based on how information sounds?

A

Acoustic encoding

Acoustic encoding helps in remembering sounds and auditory information.

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4
Q

Which encoding method involves changing information by its meaning?

A

Semantic encoding

Semantic encoding is crucial for understanding and remembering concepts.

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5
Q

What is tactile encoding?

A

Memory of what things feel like to touch

Tactile encoding helps in recalling physical sensations.

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6
Q

What is olfactory encoding?

A

Memory for smell

Olfactory encoding relates to the ability to remember scents.

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7
Q

What is the purpose of storage in memory?

A

Holding information in memory for later retrieval

Storage is the second step in the memory process.

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8
Q

What is retrieval in the context of memory?

A

Locating and bringing back information into mind

Retrieval is the final step in the memory process.

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9
Q

What are the three types of retrieval?

A
  • Recognition
  • Cued recall
  • Free recall

Each type varies in the cues or prompts provided for memory recall.

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10
Q

True or False: Recognition involves identifying information from options.

A

True

Recognition is often easier than recall as it provides cues.

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11
Q

Fill in the blank: Cued recall involves locating information with a _______.

A

[clue]

Cued recall helps retrieve memories through hints.

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12
Q

What is free recall?

A

Retrieving information without cues

Free recall tests the depth of memory storage.

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13
Q

What is the primary focus of Baddeley’s study?

A

To see if there was a difference in the type of encoding used in STM and LTM

STM stands for Short-Term Memory, while LTM stands for Long-Term Memory.

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14
Q

What types of memory are investigated in Baddeley’s study?

A

Episodic memory and Semantic memory

Episodic memory is the memory of personal experiences, while Semantic memory involves facts and knowledge.

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15
Q

What method did participants use to learn words in Baddeley’s study?

A

Participants learned words similar or dissimilar sounding and with similar or dissimilar meanings

Examples include similar sounding words like ‘cat, cab, can’ and similar meaning words like ‘great, large, big.’

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16
Q

What was the recall procedure for the words learned in the study?

A

Immediate recall for similar or dissimilar sounding words and recall after 20 minutes for similar or dissimilar meanings

This method aimed to test differences in STM and LTM encoding.

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17
Q

What were the results regarding similar sounding words in STM?

A

Similar sounding words were poorly recalled in STM

This indicates that STM encoding is primarily auditory.

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18
Q

What were the results regarding similar meaning words in LTM?

A

Words with similar meanings were poorly recalled in LTM

This suggests that LTM encoding is primarily semantic.

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19
Q

What conclusion can be drawn from Baddeley’s study regarding encoding?

A

STM is encoded by sound and LTM by meaning

This highlights the different mechanisms of memory encoding.

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20
Q

What is a characteristic of the experimental design used in Baddeley’s study?

A

It is a controlled experiment

Extraneous variables, such as participants’ hearing, were controlled by a hearing test.

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21
Q

True or False: Encoding in STM always involves sound.

A

False

Some studies, like Brandimote et al., suggest that STM can also involve visual encoding.

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22
Q

What limitation was noted regarding the testing of LTM in Baddeley’s study?

A

LTM may not have been adequately tested due to only a 20-minute wait before recall

This raises concerns about the validity of the conclusion drawn regarding LTM.

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23
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Memory for events from your life.

Episodic memory involves recalling specific experiences and events that have occurred in one’s personal past.

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24
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Memory of what things mean (your own encyclopedia).

Semantic memory includes facts, concepts, and knowledge about the world that are not tied to personal experiences.

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25
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Memory of how to do things.

Procedural memory is responsible for skills and actions, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument.

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26
Q

What are the two main types of declarative memory?

A

Episodic and semantic.

Declarative memory refers to memories that can be consciously recalled, including personal experiences and factual knowledge.

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27
Q

What is non-declarative memory?

A

Procedural memory.

Non-declarative memory includes skills and habits that are performed automatically without conscious thought.

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28
Q

How do brain scans relate to types of long-term memory?

A

Different types of LTM relate to different brain locations.

For example, procedural memory is often associated with the motor area of the brain.

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29
Q

What evidence supports the distinction of LTM types?

A

Amnesic patients like Clive Wearing.

Clive Wearing retained procedural memory but lost episodic memory, supporting the idea of distinct types of LTM.

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30
Q

True or False: Distinctive types of LTM are easy to separate.

A

False.

The distinct types of LTM may be difficult to separate, suggesting it could be an oversimplification.

31
Q

What was the aim of Bartlett’s study?

A

To see how memory is affected by unfamiliar stories.

Bartlett’s study involved participants recalling a story that was unfamiliar to them.

32
Q

What method did Bartlett use in his study?

A

The War of the Ghosts story.

Participants were asked to recall the story after a delay, which revealed how memory is reconstructed.

33
Q

What did participants do to the unfamiliar information in Bartlett’s study?

A

Changed it.

Participants altered details of the story, demonstrating how prior knowledge influences memory recall.

34
Q

What was one conclusion drawn from Bartlett’s study?

A

We use our knowledge to reconstruct memories.

This suggests that memory is not a perfect reproduction but is influenced by existing knowledge and expectations.

35
Q

What is a limitation of Bartlett’s study?

A

Lacks control.

The study lacked rigorous experimental controls, which could impact the reliability of the results.

36
Q

Fill in the blank: Participants waited _______ minutes before recalling the story in Bartlett’s study.

A

This delay was crucial in analyzing how memory changes over time.

37
Q

What is the main focus of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study?

A

To see how memory is reconstructed when recalling an unfamiliar story.

The study investigates the processes involved in memory recall and reconstruction.

38
Q

What method was used in Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study?

A

The War of the Ghosts story was read by one participant and recalled after 15 minutes, then read by another participant and recalled, and so on.

This method involved repeated recall by different participants to assess memory reconstruction.

39
Q

What were the main results of Bartlett’s study?

A

Participants changed the story to fit cultural expectations, leaving out unfamiliar information.

This indicates that memory is influenced by cultural context and personal experience.

40
Q

What conclusion can be drawn from Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study?

A

We use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory.

This suggests that memory is not a static process but is actively reconstructed based on prior knowledge.

41
Q

True or False: Bartlett’s study had a high level of control.

A

False.

The study lacked control over variables, which may affect the reliability of the results.

42
Q

What potential bias exists in Bartlett’s study?

A

Results were biased because Bartlett analyzed the recollections himself.

This could lead to subjective interpretations of the data.

43
Q

Fill in the blank: The story used in Bartlett’s study was _______.

A

unusual.

The unusual nature of the story may not accurately reflect everyday memory processes.

44
Q

What is the theory of reconstructive memory?

A

People rebuild memory as an active process.

45
Q

True or False: Memory is a process of exact reproduction of experiences.

A

False

46
Q

What does reconstruction in memory involve?

A

Record pieces of information, recombine to tell the whole story.

47
Q

What influences expectations during memory storage and recall?

A

Social and cultural influences.

48
Q

Fill in the blank: We focus on the meaning of events and make an effort afterwards to make sense of _______.

A

fragments of memory.

49
Q

What type of research reflects how we use memory in everyday life?

A

More realistic research.

50
Q

Why is the use of stories in memory research significant?

A

It reflects how we use memory in everyday life because it uses a story not word lists.

51
Q

Are all memories reconstructed?

A

No, some memories are accurate.

52
Q

What real-world application does the theory of reconstructive memory explain?

A

Problems with eyewitness testimony.

53
Q

What is the multi-store model of memory?

A

A theoretical framework that describes three distinct memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

The model explains how information is processed and transferred between these stores.

54
Q

What are the three memory stores in the multi-store model?

A
  • Sensory memory
  • Short-term memory (STM)
  • Long-term memory (LTM)

Each store has different characteristics regarding coding, capacity, and duration.

55
Q

What is the duration and capacity of sensory memory?

A

Very short duration and large capacity.

Sensory memory retains information for a brief period before it is transferred to STM.

56
Q

How does information move from sensory memory to short-term memory?

A

Through attention.

Attention is crucial for transferring information to the next stage of memory.

57
Q

What are the characteristics of short-term memory (STM)?

A
  • Limited duration (30 seconds)
  • Limited capacity (5-9 items)
  • Acoustic coding

STM is essential for temporarily holding information for immediate use.

58
Q

What role does rehearsal play in memory?

A

Rehearsal keeps information in STM and facilitates transfer to LTM.

Repeating information helps to encode it for longer-term storage.

59
Q

What is the coding, capacity, and duration of long-term memory (LTM)?

A
  • Semantic coding
  • Unlimited capacity
  • Stored up to a lifetime

LTM is essential for retaining information over extended periods.

60
Q

What research supports the distinction between STM and LTM?

A

Encoding research by Baddeley shows qualitative differences between STM and LTM.

This research highlights how information is processed differently in each memory store.

61
Q

True or False: The multi-store model includes only one type of short-term memory.

A

False.

The model is considered too simplistic as it does not account for multiple types of LTM.

62
Q

What is a limitation of the research used in the multi-store model?

A

Research often uses artificial materials like word lists or consonant syllables, which affects validity.

Such materials may not reflect real-life memory processes.

63
Q

Fill in the blank: The multi-store model of memory includes _______ memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

A

sensory

Sensory memory is the first stage in the multi-store model.

64
Q

what is the primacy and recency effect

A

words at the beginning are remembered more ( rehearsed, so in LTM)
words at the end are remembered more (heard recently, so in STM)

65
Q

what was the aim of murdocks study

A

to see if memory of words is affected by location in a list

66
Q

murdocks study method

A

participants listened to 20 word lists with 10-40 words on them, recalled words after each list

67
Q

murdocks study results

A

recall is related to position of words. Higher recall for the first words (primacy effect) and last words ( recency effect) than in the middle

68
Q

conclusion of murdocks study

A

shows the serial position effect and supports the MSM stores

69
Q

two evaluation points of murdocks study

A

controlled lab study - there was a high level of control so it could be concluded position of words determined recall

artificial task - word lists were used which is only one type of memory, so the study lacks validity

70
Q

what was the aim of mcgeoch and McDonald’s study

A

to see if the effect of doing two activities on accuracy of memory

71
Q

method of mcgeoch and mcdonalds study

A

learned a list of 10 words and then another list of varying types ( synonyms and antonyms)

72
Q

results of mcgeoch and mcdonalds study

A

memory was affected by the second list, most of all of the second list had similar meaning ( synonyms)

73
Q

conclusion of mcgeoch and mcdonalds study

A

shows interference affects the accuracy of memory and is strongest when you try to remember two similar things

74
Q

what are the factors affecting accuracy of memory

A

interference, context and false memories

psychology paper 1 (4 decks)

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