Memory Flashcards
What are the four aspects that make up the cognitive interview?
report everything
Reinstate context
Reverse order
Change perspective
What are cognitive interviews?
Fisher and Geiselman argued EWT’s could be improved if police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses. Recommended techniques could give insight into how memory works, calling these techniques cognitive interview (CI)
In a CI what is report everything and how does it help EWT’s?
witnesses encouraged to include every single detail even though it may seem irrelevant or witness doesn’t feel comfortable or confident. Trivial details may trigger other important memories
In a CI what is Reinstate context and how does it help EWT’s?
Witnesses should return to crime scene in mind and imagine environment and what their emotions were like. This is to limit context dependant forgetting.
In a CI what is reverse order and how does it help EWT’s?
events should be recalled in different order . This is done to prevent people reporting their expectations of how they think the event happened due to pre existing schemas. Also used to prevent dishonesty
In a CI what is change in perspective and how does it help EWT’s?
witness should recall from another perspective. This is done to disrupt effect of expectations and also effect of schema on recall. This schema generates expectations in a particular setting
What are enhanced cognitive interviews?
Fisher et al developed some additional elements of CI to focus on social dynamic of interactions. Includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witness to speak slowly and asking open ended questions
What is anxiety?
a strong emotional and physical effect but not sure if it helps or hinders EWT’s
What is anxietys positive effect on recall?
witnessing stressful events creates anxiety through physiological arousal (fight or flight). May improve memory due to awareness
What is anxiety’s negatives effect on recall?
since physiological arousal created prevents us from paying attention recall is worse
Who did the research into the positive effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
Yuille and Cutshall
Who did the research into the negative effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
Johnson and Scott
What was the procedure used by Johnson and Scott to look at the negative effect of anxiety on EWT’s?
p’s believed to take part in lab study. While in waiting room low anxiety p’s heard casual conversation then man walking past with pen and grease on hands. In high anxiety condition argument with glass breaking with man walking by covered in blood and with knife
What was the procedure used by Yuille and Cutshall to look at the positive effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
study of an actual shooting in a gun shop. Owner shot thief dead. 21 witnesses and 13 took part in study. interviewed 4-5 months after and compared to original police interviews. Accuracy determined by detail. Also asked how stressed on scale (1-7) or had emotional problems since
What was the findings by Yuille and Cutshall to look at the positive effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
witnesses very accurate in accounts and has little change after 5 months tho some less accurate (age/weight/etc) High stress p’s were most accurate around 88% compared to 75% in Low anxiety P’s. Suggests anxiety doesn’t have negative effect on EWT’s
What was the findings by Johnson and Scott to look at the negative effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
P’s later picked out a man from 50 photos, 49% in pen could identify with eon 33% with knife. Tunnel vision theory memory argues people have enhanced memories for central events (weapons) due to anxiety
What theory is used to explain both positive and negative anxiety effect on EWT’s?
Inverted U theory
What is the inverted U theory in regards to positive and negative effect of anxiety on EWT’s?
It shows how there is an optimum level for anxiety and when going up towards the optimum it can be positive but when going past this point becomes negative
(Beffenbacher) reviewed studies on EWT’s and found mixed results which can be explained using this graph theory
Who did the research on leading questions
Loftus and Palmer
What are leading questions?
when asking questions wording may lead/mislead you to a certain answers, particularly an issue in EWT’s
What was the procedure used by Loftus and Palmer in leading questions research
arranged for 45 p’s to watch film clips of car accidents then asked questions about the incident. In critical question p’s asked how fast car was going when hit. Five groups given different verbs to be used in critical question
What was the findings of Loftus and Palmers research into leading questions?
mean estimated speed was calculated for each group. The verb ‘contacted’ yielded results of 31.8 mph while ‘smashed’ was 40.5 mph meaning this led to a bias recall
What are post event discussions?
when eyewitnesses often discuss with on another of experiences and memories
Who did the research on post-event discussion
Gabbert et al
What was the procedure used by Gabbert et al on post-event discussion
studied p’s in pairs. Each p watched video of crime but at different angles with unique elements. Both then came together and discussed before test of recall
What was the findings used by Gabbert et al on post-event discussion
71% of p’s recalled events/aspects not seen in video but from discussion (control group was 0% when they had no discussions-gives evidence of memory conformity)
Why does leading questions lead to an effect on EWT’s?
has no effect on memory but how you answer. Some researchers conducted second experiment supported the substitution explanation which proposes wording changes memory of a film clip. Shown all p’s who heard smash later reported seeing glass when there was none. Critical very altered memory
What is the substitution explanation?
mind’s tendency to replace one thing with another, whether it’s an object, feeling, or thought.
Why does post-event discussion affect EWT’s?
one explanation is memory contamination. When discussed EWT become altered or distorted. This is because they combine mis information from other EW’s with own memories
Memory conformity is another due to need of social approval or believing others are right. Unlike with memory contamination actual memory is unchanged
What three components are there of the multi store model?
sensory register, short term memory store, long term memory store
How many registers are there in the sensory register?
7
What is the coding in each store in the sensory register?
each store is modality specific
Who created the multi store model of memory?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
What is the duration of the sensory register?
brief around about less than 1/2 a second
What’s the capacity of the sensory register
very high
How does information pass through the sensory register into the short term memory
if you pay attention to the information
how is short term memory coded?
acoustically
how long does the short term memory last?
18s until rehearsed
What is the capacity of short term memory
5-9 items (7 + or - 2)
What moves information from the short term memory to the long-term memory?
prolonged rehearsal
What are the stores in the sensory store?
echoic (acoustic -hearing- )
iconic (visual information)
other stores
How is the long-term memory coded?
semantically
What is the duration of the long term memory?
may be up to a lifetime
What is the capacity of the long-term memory
unlimited
How does information go from the long-term memory to the short term
through retrieval
What is maintenance rehearsal
the rehearsal loop where you rehearse the material over and over in order to move info from short term to long term
Who proposed the types of LTM?
Tulving
What are the three types of Long term memory?
episodic, semantic, procedural
What is procedural memory for
memory for actions or skills
Can we recall info from procedural without conscious awareness?
yes - meaning difficult to explain as you do it naturally
What does the sematic memory store
contains shared knowledge of the world (constantly being added to)
What is the semantic memory like?
an encyclopaedia and dictioanry
Are memories time stamped in the sematic memory?
no
is the semantic memory vulnerable to distortion and forgetting?
less vulnerable than episodic
What is the episodic memory used to store?
refers to ability it recall events from our lives like a diary of personal experiences
Where is the episodic memory found?
prefrontal cortex
What are the stages in the episodic memory
1- memories are time stamped so you remember when it happens
2- memory of a single episode will include 7 elements which as people, places, objects and behaviour which are all interwoven
3- have to make conscious effort to recall episode, you do this quickly but are unaware you are searching for the memory
Who proposed the Working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
What is the WMM concerned with
‘mental space’ that is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulating information, The short term memory
What makes up the WMM?
episodic buffer
phonological loop
central executive
visuo spatial sketch pad
What does the central executive do?
has a ‘supervisory role’ which monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our limited attention and allocates sub systems to the tasks. Very limited storing capacity and does not store information
What does the phonological loop do?
deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which information arrives.
Subdivided into: phonological store (what you hear) and articulatory process (allows maintenance rehearsal -inner voice- )
What is the capacity of the phonological loop
2 secs
What is the episodic buffer
added in 2000 by Baddely. Temporary store for information integrating the visual, verbal, spatial information processes by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing (recording what events are happening)
What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?
4 chunks
What is the Visuo-spatial sketch pad
stores visual and spatial info when required
What is the capacity of the visuo spatial sketch pad
3 or 4 objects
Visual cache stores visual data
Inner scribe records arrangement of objects in visual fields
What does the phonological loop help to learn
different languages sounds
what is the interference theory?
occurs when two pieces of info disrupt each other causing one or both to be forgotten or distorted , proposed for LTM (means we cannot gain access to into that should be more or less permanent)
What are the two types of interference ?
proactive
retroactive
What is proactive interferance?
occurs when older memories interfere with a newer one
What is retroactive interferance?
happens when a new memory is interfering with old memories
Who said both proactive and retroactive interference is worse when memories are similar
McDonald and McGeoch
What was the procedure used by McDonald and McGeoch into interference theory
studied retroactive by changing amounts of similarity between two sets of material. P’s had to learn list of 10 words until they remembered 100%. Then learned new list.
Six groups which had different types of words in each new list.
What was the new lists used by Mcdonald and McGeoch for the 6 groups?
1) synonyms
2)antonyms
3)unrelated words
4)consonant syllables
5)three digit numbers
6)no new list (p’s rested)
What were the results of McGeoch and McDonalds research into interference theory?
when asked to recall original list found similar material (synonyms) produced worst recall. Shows interference strongest when memories similar
What was the explanation for the effects of similarity in interference theory?
reason it effects recall may be due to two reasons: proactive- previously stored information makes new similar info difficult to store. Retroactive - new information over rides previous similar memories cause of similarity
What does proactive and retroactive interference prevent?
prevent info in STM moving into LTM
What are the two explanations for forgetting?
cannot find it as not accessible
information not available because it has not been stored or the trace memory has decayed
What is retrieval failure?
when information initially stored associated cues are stored at the same time so if cue not present may give feeling of forgetting but is actually retrieval failure
Who carried out the research on state dependant forgetting?
Carter and Cassaday
What was the procedure used by carter and cassaday into state dependant forgetting?
gave antihistamines to p’s. Has mild sedative effect. This creates internal physiological state and p’s had to learn lists of words and passages
Four different combos:
learn on drug- recall on drug
Learn on drug - recall without
Learn without - recall on drug
Learn without- recall without
What was the findings by carter and cassaday into state dependant forgetting?
When state was mismatched performance on recall test was worse. So when cues absent then there is more forgetting
Who did the research into context dependant forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley
What was the Procedure used by Godden and Baddeley into context dependant forgetting?
Studied deep sea divers to see if land training helped or hindered. Divers learned lists of words either underwater or on land then recall on either land or underwater
Four conditions:
learn land-recall underwater
Learn land-recall land
Learn underwater - recall underwater
Learn underwater - recall on land
What was the findings and conclusions by Godden and Baddeley into context dependant forgetting?
accurate recall was 40% lower than non matching conditions. Concluded external cues available at learning different ones available on recall
What is the encoding specific principle?
Tulving found pattern in retrieval failure research called encoding specific principle (ESP) which states cue has to be present at encoding and retrieval. Some cues encoded when learning in meaningful way but some can be non meaningful (e.g context and state dependant forgetting)
What is context dependant forgetting?
recall depends on external cues
What is state dependant forgetting?
recall depends on internal cues (e.g. being intoxicated)
How was tests on the duration on the LTM carried out by Bahrick?
got a hold of year books and collected participants aged 17-74. Asked people that have been out of school for 15 and 48 years, asked to list people in their graduation group then to identify people by picture in year book,
What was the finding and conclusion of the research into duration on LTM?
after 15 years people were able to recall 60% of their graduation class. Dropped to 30% after 48 years when identifying however recall was 90% accurate after 15 years
Duration can last up to a life time in your LTM
How was research into the coding in the LTM and STM conducted by Baddeley?
Four lists:
Phonetically similar
Phonetically dissimilar
Semantically similar
Semantically dissimilar
Looking at lists people were asked to say the words they remembered. After 20 minutes asked to recall words
what was the findings and conclusion into the coding in the LTM and STM conducted by Baddeley?
found people did worse with acoustically similar lists (STM) also found that with LTM people did worse with semantically similar words 30 minutes later
Coding in STM = acoustic
Coding in LTM = semantic
What was the research carried out by Peterson and Peterson on the duration of the STM?
trigrams then numbers to count back from, 24 p’s
gave trigrams then asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal as a distraction task with varied amount of times
What was the findings and conclusions drawn by Peterson and Peterson on the duration of the STM?
after 3 seconds 80% accuracy
after 18 seconds accuracy reduced to 3%
Without verbal rehearsal we have a short duration in out STM of around 18 seconds
What was the research carried out by Miller into STM capacity?
only used observations
What was the findings and conclusions drawn by Miller into STM capacity?
noticed that there were lots of occurrences of things in 7’s such as days of week, music scales, etc
people can recall 5 words as well as they can 5 letters
suggests that this is the case for digits, letters and words if they chunk information into groups that become one item which can be remembered
What was the research carried out by Jacobs into STM capacity?
lists of numbers and digits ranging from 4 upwards
Examiners all read out number then ask participants to write then down
What was the findings and conclusion by Jacobs into STM capacity?
mean span of letters was 7.3 mean span for digits was 9.3
Concluded STM has a maximum capacity
Who gave evidence for interference theory in real life?
Alan Baddeley and hitch asked rugby players to recall names of teams they played against this season. All played for same time but varied (injuries etc) Players who played the most games had poorer recall (most interference) study shows that interference can operate in some real world situations, increasing validity of theory
What was the counterpoint for the real life evidence for explanations for forgetting
interreference may be caused some forgetting in everyday but unusual. Due to conditions for interference to occur is rare. very unlike lab studies where high degree of control meaning may happen happen in everyday life occasionally but not often. Study shows interference more likely forgetting due to retrieval failure and other theories.
Who said that interference is temporary and can be overcome by using cue
Tulving and Psotka gave participants lists of words in categories , one list at time (p’s told categories) recall averaged around 70% for first list but became progressively worse as p’s learned each additional list. But has words gone from LTM? At end p’s given cues to recall test (given name of categories) recall rose to 70% again. Shows interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to material still in LTM, finding not predicted by theory
What was the support from drug studies about interference theory?
Coenen and Luitelaar gave p’s list of words then later asked to recall assuming intervening experiences would act as interference. Found when list learned under diazepam influence, recall once a week later was poor (compared to placebo control group). But when learned before drug recall was better than placebo. Drug improved recall beforehand. Wixted suggested drug prevents new information reaching processing areas in brain. Findings show that forgetting can be due to interference (reduced interference = reduced forgetting)
Extra evaluation for interference theory?
most studies supporting interference are lab based so researchers control variables meaning better cause and effect relationship. But artificial materials and unrealistic materials compared to everyday
What was the clinical evidence for the LTM consisting of 3 types?
Henry Malmaison and Clive wearing - both men had severe brain damage but semantic memory stayed in tact so they understood the meaning of words and their procedural was intact so they could remember how to do activities yet their episodic memory was damaged so they could not create new memories. Supports Tulving’s view that there are different memory stores in the LT< as one store can be damaged and not effected by others
What was the counter point for the clinical evidence of types of LTM?
lack control variables in clinical studies
brain injuries usually expected meaning no way to control what individuals memory was like before accident. lack of control limits what clinical studies can tell us about types of LTM
Who was HM and how was his LTM effected?
Lived with seizures and under went procedure to remove hippocampus. He could only remember things for around 15-20 seconds but could remember actions such as riding and bike and could trace a star in the mirror and get better showing his procedural memory and semantic memory was still in tact (info didn’t pass into LTM from STM)
Who was CW and how was his LTM effected?
was in a motorcycle accident and could not create new memories (episodic) but could remember how to play the piano very well showing his procedural memory was still in tact
What was the conflicting research to do with finding links with LTM to different parts of brain
Buckner and Peterson reviewed evidence regarding location of episodic and semantic memory. Semantic found on left side of prefrontal cortex and episodic on the right. However other studies see left as encoding for episodic and right as retrieval
this challenges neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory due to poor agreement on where it’s located
What is the real world application of the types of LTM?
as you get older you experience memory loss but research has shown it is mostly for episodic memory with new memories and old memories staying in tact. Belleville at al devised an intervention to improve episodic memory in older people, trained p’s performed better on tests than not trained.
Shows distinguishment between types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed
What was the extra evaluation for types of LTM?
Hodges and Patterson found Alzheimer’s could form new episodic memories but not semantic. recently Tulving has taken view that episodic has specialised subcategories with people with amnesia having damaged episodic but functioning semantic but couldn’t be other way round
what is the positive evaluations of the coding research?
identifies clear difference between memory stores.
later research showed that there are some exceptions to Baddeley’s findings but the conclusions about how LTM and STM code are valid
important to understand how memory system works, led to development of Multi store model (MSM)
what is the limitation of the coding research?
arteficial stimuli
for example the word lists had no personal meaning to p’s so findings may not tell us about different memory tasks (every day life) may use semantic in STM in meaningful tasks
suggested findings have limited applications
What is the positive evaluation of the duration research (Bahrick)?
high external validity researchers investigated meaningful memories when studies on LTM were conducted with meaningless pictures recall rates lower
suggests his findings were more of a ‘real’ estimate of duration of LTM
What is the positive evaluation of the capacity research(jacobs)?
replication
since it’s an early study lacked adequate control yet findings have been found the same
Suggests valid test of digit span
What is the limitation of the duration research (Peterson’s)?
artificial stimulus
recalling consonant syllables does not reflect most everyday memory activities where what we try remember is meaningful
lacked external validity
What is the limitation of the capacity research(millers)?
not so many chunks
Nelson Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that capacity of STM only about 4 chunks (plus or minus 1)
suggests lower end of estimate (5) is more appropriate than 7
What was the research support for retrieval failure?
studies by godden and baddeley and carter and cassaday show that lack of relevant cues at recall can lead to context and state dependency forgetting in everday life. Memory researchers Eysenk and Kaene argues it is main for forgetting LTM
this evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs in real world situations as well as in highly controlled lab
What was the counterpoint for research support intro retrieval failure?
Baddeley argues that context effects are not very strong especially in everyday life. Different contexts have very different indeed before effect seen. In contrast learning in one room and recalling in other in unlikely to result in much forgetting as environment is generally not different enough
means retrieval failure due to contextual cues may not actually explain much everyday forgetting
What was the extra evaluation for retrieval failure?
lots of evidence that forgetting takes place when there is mismatch of encoding and retrieval
however it us possible to independently establish whether a cue has been encoded or not. Reasoning is circular and based on assumption. In experiment if cue or not produce recall we assume it cannot be encoded and vice versa
What is the real world application for retrieval failure?
retrieval cues can help overcome forgetting, although cues may not have strong effect Baddeley suggests they are worth paying attention to. When we have trouble remembering something it is probably worth making effort to recall in environment you first learned it in
shows how research can remind us of strategies we use in the real world to improve recall
What was the recall vs recognition limitation of retrieval failure?
Godden and Baddeley replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall - p’s had to say whether they recognised a word read from a list. When tested there was no context dependant effect, performance was same in all four conditions
suggests that retrieval failure is a limited explanation for forgetting because it applies when a person has to recall info rather than recognise it
What was the research support for the MSM?
for example Baddeley found we mix up similar words that sound similar in STM. But words with similar meaning in LTM. Further support comes from capacity and duration.
Studies clearly show that STM and LTM are separate and independent of one another
What was the counter point for the research support into the MSM?
despite support in everyday life we form memories related to all sorts of useful things but many use none of these materials. Instead using words and digits or consonant syllables with no meaning.
MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works in our everyday life where we have to remember meaningful information
How was evidence of more than one STM store a limitation of the MSM?
Shallice and Warrington studied client who has a clinical memory disorder : amnesia. STM for digits were poor when read out but better when read. Also evidence for STM with non-verbal sounds
Suggests MSM is wrong in claiming that there is just one STM store processing different types of information
How did the idea of prolonged rehearsal effect the view of the MSM?
Crank and Watkins found type of rehearsal more important than amount. Elaborate rehearsal needed. Occurs when you link information to existing knowledge
suggests how MSM does not fully explain how LTM is achieved
What is the clinical evidence for the WMM?
support from Shallice and Warringtons case study of KF. After brain injury he had poor STM ability for auditory info but could process visual info normally. Meant KF’s phonological loop was damaged but the visuo-sketch pad intact
findings strongly supports existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores
What is the counter point to the clinical evidence support of the WMM?
however unclear whether KF had other cognitive impairments which might have affected his performance on memory tasks. Caused by Motorcycle accident so trauma may effect cognition
Challenges evidence that comes from clinical studies of brain injuries as may have affected many systems
How do dual task performance support the idea of the WMM?
when Baddeley et al’s p’s carried out visual and verbal tasks at same time their performance on each was similar to when done separate but when either visual or verbal performance declined. Because both visual tasks had to compete for same subsystem (VSS)
Shows there must be separate subsystems that process one for visual and one for verbal
What was the extra evaluation of the WMM?
because of dual tasks we know more separate subsystems so separate components in working memory however these studies use tasks that are very unlikely in everyday. They are also carried out in highly controlled lab conditions
How does the nature of the central executive limit the integrity of the WMM?
baddeley recognised when he said ‘central executive is most important but least understood’ The CE needs more clearly specified than just being simply ‘attention’.
Means CE is an unsatisfactory component and this challenges the integrity of the WMM
What was the real world application of the knowledge on leading questions and post event discussion (misleading information)
misleading information important in criminal practises. Consequences of a biased EWT can be serious. Loftus believes can have distorting effect on memory so police must phrase correctly. Psychologists sometimes asked to act as EWT in court trials to highlight limits of EWT’s to juries.
Shows that psychologists can help to improve way legal system works and protects innocent people
What was the counter point for the real world applications of misleading information?
however practical application of EWT’s may be affected by issues within research. Loftus and Palmers p’s watched film clips in a lab (artificial) Also Foster et al pointed out what EW remember has important consequences on real world but p’s response doesn’t matter in real world
suggests researchers such as Loftus et al are too pessimistic about effect of misleading info- EWT’s may be more dependable than suggested
What was the extra evaluation for the misleading information?
lab studies identified as misleading as cause of inaccurate EWT’s. But Zaragoza and McCluskey argue many answers due to demand characteristics
What evidence challenges memory conformity in misleading information?
Skaberg and Wright showed p’s film clips. Two versions : muggers hair was dark brown in one but light in other. P’s discussed in pairs seeing both clips but often did not report what had seen in clips or what said by others but bland of two
Suggests memory itself is distorted through contamination by misleading post-event discussion, rather than result of memory conformity
What is the evidence against substitution in the misleading information?
Sutherland and Hayne showed p’s video slips. When p’s later asked misleading questions recall was more accurate. for central details of events than peripheral. Presumably the p’s attention was focused on central features of events and these memories relatively resistant to misleading information
Suggests original memories for central details survived not distorted an outcome not predicted by substitution explanation
What was the support for positive effects of anxiety?
Christianson and Hubinette interviewed 58 witnesses to actual robbery in Sweden. Both either directly or indirectly involved. Recall was 75% across all but was more accurate in direct victims which had higher anxiety
Findings from actual crimes confirm anxiety does not reduce accuracy of recall for EW and may even enhance it
What was the counter point for positive effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
however they interviewed these p’s several months after the event. Therefore researchers had no control over what happened in the intervening time. The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by these factors and impossible to access by time interviews happened
therefore it is possible that the lack of control over confounding variables may be responsible for findings
what was the extra evaluation on anxiety
inverted u theory appears to be a reasonable explanation of the contradictory findings linked with both increase and decrease. On other hand it ignores that anxiety has many elements only focusing on physical arousal and assumes this only one effecting EWT’s. But may also be cognitive effect
What was the support for the negative effects of anxiety on EWT’s?
Valentine and Mesout supports research of weapon focus findings negative effects on recall. Researchers used objective measures (heartbeat) to divide p’s into low and high anxiety. In study anxiety is clearly disrupted the p’s ability to recall details about actor in London dungeon labyrinth. Suggests that high levels of anxiety does have a negative effect on the immediate EW recall of a stressful event
How did Johnson’s and Scotts research may have not tested anxiety?
The reason p’s focused on weapon may be because they were surprised at what they saw rather than scared. Pickle conducted experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet or raw chicken as hand held item in hairdressing salon video. (scissors high anxiety but low unusualness) EW accuracy significantly poorer in high unusualness (raw chicken)
Suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety threat and therefore tells us nothing specifically of the effect of anxiety on EWT
What is the support for effectiveness of cognitive interviews?
a meta analysis combined data from 55 studies comparing CI and ECI with standard police interview. CI gave 41% increase in accurate information. Only four studies showed no difference
shows CI is effective technique in helping witnesses recall information stored in memory but not easily accessible
What was the counter point to the support for cognitive interviews?
Kronkhen et al also found increase in amounts of inaccurate info recalled by p’s. This was a particular issue in the ECI with more incorrect details than CI. Cognitive interviews may sacrifice quality of EWT in favour of quantity
means that police officers should treat EW evidence from CI/ECI with caution
Why are not all elements of CI not effective or useful?
Milne and Bull found each of the four techniques used alone produced more info than police interviews. But also that using combo of report everything and reinstate context produced better recall than other elements or combinations. Confirmed police officers suspicions that some aspects more useful than others
casts some doubt on creditability of overall cognitive interview
What makes CI time consuming?
police may be reluctant as time consuming. More time needed to establish rapport to allow witnesses to relax. CI also requires special training and many forces do not have resources to provide more than a few hours
suggests complete CI if exists is not a realistic method for police officers to use and it might be better to focus on a few key elements
What is the evaluation extra for cognitive interviews?
police forces have taken ‘pick and mix’ approach to various approaches in research methods- but approach is more flexible . Means individuals can develop their own approach according to what works best for them
