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memory Flashcards

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1
Q

definition of memory

A

process which info is retained about the past

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2
Q

definition of STM

A

temporary memory store which info is not retained unless rehearsed

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3
Q

definition of LTM

A

permanent memory store that stores unlimited info

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4
Q

definition of coding

A

format memory is stored in

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5
Q

who conducted research into coding?

A

baddely

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6
Q

outline baddely’s study into coding

A

M: acoustically similar/dissimilar (sounds) and semantically similar/ dissimilar (meanings) lists of words- participants asked to recall words immediately after or after 20 min task
R: immediately after STM): struggled with acoustic words; after 20 mins (LTM): struggled with semantic words
C: LTM is semantically coded and STM is acoustically coded

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7
Q

evaluate baddely’s coding study

A

A: helps identify different memory stores
C: artificial stimuli: words had no personal meaning to participants so results could differ if meaningful- limited application

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8
Q

definition of capacity

A

amount of info that can be held in memory

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9
Q

who conducted research into capacity

A

jacobs

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10
Q

outline Jacob’s study into capacity

A

M: participants shown string of numbers/ letters and asked to repeat them back in the same numbers until failure
R: most participants has 9.3 digits/ 7.3 letters recalled
C: STM has limited storage but LTM has unlimited capacity

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11
Q

evaluate Jacob’s study into capacity

A

A: miller- made observations of everyday practise and said capacity of STM is 7+/-2 chunks-> suggest we use chunking to combine things into meaningful units
A: valid study: replicated to avoid outdated results
C: cowan- reviewed other research +concluded STM is only 4+/-1 chunks

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12
Q

definition of duration

A

length of time info can be held in memory

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13
Q

who conducted research into STM duration?

A

Peterson and Peterson

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14
Q

outline Peterson and Peterson’s research into duration of STM

A

M: given constant syllable to remember and asked to count back from a number then recall syllable after retention interval
R: after 3s: 80% accurate recall; after 18s: 10% accurate recall
C: show when recall is prevented, little is remembered and STM has 18s duration

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15
Q

who conducted research into LTM duration?

A

bahrick

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16
Q

outline bahrick’s research into LTM duration

A

M: recall of photo and name recognition of class after 48 years and 15 years
R: after 15 years: 90% photo, 60% name; after 48 years: 70% photo, 30% name
C: LTM is unlimited and can last a long time

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17
Q

evaluate the research into bahrick’s research of LTM duration

A

A: high external validity: real life meaningful stimuli
C: lack of control: some may have looked/ rehearsed

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18
Q

evaluate the research into Peterson and Peterson’s research of STM duration

A

C: artificial stimuli: meaningless

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19
Q

who introduced the working memory model

A

badely and hitch

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20
Q

central executive’s function (WMM)

A

allocate date and attention
limited capacity

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21
Q

phonological loop’s function (WMM)

A

deals with auditory info

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22
Q

components of phonological loop (WMM)

A

articulatory control system: stores words you hear
phonological store: allows maintenance rehearsal

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23
Q

visuospatial sketchpad’s function (WMM)

A

stores visual info

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24
Q

visuospatial sketchpad’s components (WMM)

A

visual cache: stores visual data
inner scribe: arranges objects in visual field

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25
Q

episodic buffer’s function (WMM)

A

brings together other materials into a single memory

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26
Q

evaluation of the working memory model

A

A: KF case study- KF had poor STM recall for auditory stimuli but increased STM recall for visual stimuli- suggests components of memory that process auditory + visual stimuli are separate
A: studies of dual task: decreased performance for visual + visual/ auditory + auditory tasks- supports central executive having limited capacity
A: neuroimaging evidence: used PET scan when asked to perform visual/ auditory task- showed brain active in different areas -> empirical evidence

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27
Q

maintenance rehearsal definition

A

rehearsing to keep info in STM

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28
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

meaningful rehearsal to transfer info into LTM

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29
Q

coding, capacity and duration of sensory register

A

coding: iconic + echoic
duration: 1/2 second
capacity: high unless attention payed to info

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30
Q

coding, capacity and duration of STM

A

coding: acoustic
capacity: 7+/-2 chunks
duration: 18-30s

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31
Q

coding, capacity and duration of LTM

A

coding: semantically
capacity: unlimited
duration: unlimited

32
Q

evaluation for sensory register in MSM

A

A: sperling
m: saw grid of letters for 1/2 sec and asked to recall all/specific row
r: whole: 42% recall 5 items; row: 75% recall 3 items
c: sensory can’t store info for long unless payed attention to

33
Q

evaluation for STM and LTM in MSM

A

A: glanzer and cunitz
m: show participants list of 20 words and asked to recall
r: tendency to remember start of list due to rehearsal
c: primary effect: tendency for people to remember start of list -> support LTM
recency effect: tendency for people to remember last of list -> support STM

34
Q

who introduced the types of LTM?

A

tulving

35
Q

types of ltm

A

procedural, semantic, episodic

36
Q

definition of procedural memory

A

motorskills- automatic

37
Q

definition of semantic memory

A

storing facts and info about world- required thought and has no time stamp

38
Q

definition of episodic memory

A

storing info about events we experience- requires thought and has time stamp

39
Q

evaluation of types of LTM

A

A: HM case (LTM damaged from surgery to reduce seizures): followed line on paper disc (procedural) but couldn’t remember doing task (episodic damaged)- proves types are separated and exist
A: CW case (severe herpes cased LTM damage): able to dress himself and play piano (procedural) but wouldn’t remember when wife left and re-entered room (episodic damaged)- validity
A: neuroimaging: performing tasks while brain scanned- found episodic on right of prefrontal cortex and semantic on left -> scientific evidence they are separated types

40
Q

define interference as an explanation for forgetting

A

when info that is in similar format gets in the way of info we are trying to recall

41
Q

types of interference

A

retroactive and proactive

42
Q

define retroactive interference

A

recent info getting in the way of old info

43
Q

define proactive interference

A

old info getting in the way of new info

44
Q

who studied interference?

A

McGeoch and McDonald

45
Q

outline McGeoch and McDonald’s study into interference

A

M: participants learn list of words until they can’t remember, changed amount of similairty between two sets of material, asked to learn different set
R: performance depended on nature of second list- synonyms had worst recall
C: interference is strongest when memories are similar

46
Q

evaluate interference

A

A: postman:
m: split into 2 groups and asked to remember list of paired words and asked to remember second (control not)
r: control recalled more accurately as no interference
c: proves retroactive interference -> C: artificial task
A: evidence from lab studies: most studies show both types likely to be common- supports as lab exp controls effect of irrelevant influences to give confidence interference is valid explanation
A: RLA: investigating whether rugby players remember which teams played in season- showed recall of team played 3 weeks prior was better if played no matched since-> can generalise study to wider population

47
Q

define retrieval failure

A

forgetting due to insufficient cues to allow access to memory

48
Q

what is encoding specificity principle

A

being more likely to remember info if we recall it in the place we gained it

49
Q

types of retrieval failure

A

context and state

50
Q

what is context as a type of retrieval failure

A

environment info is gained in

51
Q

what is state as a type of retrieval failure

A

physical and emotional state info gained in

52
Q

evaluation of retrieval failure

A

A: context dependent forgetting
m: learning list of words on land/ underwater then recalling on land/underwater
r: didn’t match: accurate recall >40%
c: difficult to recall if not in some place learned
A: state dependent forgetting:
m: learning + recalling words on/off drugs
r: when conditions didn’t match recall was worse
c: when internal cues absent there are more forgetting
A: RLA: students who learned + tested in same room has highest recall- can apply to schools to improve exam results

53
Q

define EWT

A

evidence provided in court by someone who has witnessed a crime

54
Q

define misleading information

A

negative influence on EWT
leads you to give particular response instead of an accurate

55
Q

types of misleading information

A

leading questions and post event discussion

56
Q

define leading questions

A

questions suggesting desired response

57
Q

define post event discussion

A

info given after event with potential to influence memory of it

58
Q

who researched into leading questions

A

lotus and palmer

59
Q

outline lotus and palmers first study into leading questions

A

m: shown films of traffic accidents and asked questions about them using different verbs (e.g. hit, smashed)
r: ‘contacted’ had lowest speeds given and ‘smashed’ had highest speeds given
c: leading questions affect EWT

60
Q

outline lotus and palmers retest study into leading questions

A

m: shown film after multiple car accidents and asked group questions about hit/smashed/nothing- returned week later to ask if there were broken glass
r: 19% of participants said there was broken glass on the ground after post event discussion
c: wording of question changed memory of incident

61
Q

define the explanations of leading questions

A

response bias: wording of question influences how they answer
substitution bias: leading questions cause changes in memory

62
Q

evaluate leading questions as a type of misleading information

A

A: RLA: leading questions have distorting effect- police need to be careful
C: artificial: watching clips- not real + ignores influence of emotion
C: individual differences: older less accurate than younger- study show 18-25 yrs more accurate than 55-78

63
Q

who researched into post event discussion

A

gabbert

64
Q

outline gabbert’s research into post event discussion

A

M: watched video of crime (one saw book one didn’t) one group went through post event discussion- all take recall test
R: PED group has 71% mistaken recall
C: PED can alter peoples memory

65
Q

evaluate post event discussion

A

C: lack RLA: participants witnessed different perspective of same crime- results dont reflect everyday crimes and witness’ usually have less info

66
Q

define anxiety as a factor effecting EWT

A

unpleasant emotional state where we feel something bad will happen

67
Q

who researched into anxiety being a negative factor affecting EWT

A

Johnson and Scott

68
Q

outline Johnson and Scott’s study into anxiety being a negative factor affecting EWT

A

M: low anxiety group (no weapon- greasy hand + pen) and high anxiety group (weapon- bloody hand + letter opener)
R: low anxiety: 49% accuracy of face, high anxiety: 33% accuracy
C: weapon distracts attention to situation by reducing accurate due to anxiety

69
Q

evaluation of anxiety being a negative factor affecting EWT

A

C: pickel
m: handheld items in salon shop
r: scissors: low anxiety, handgun: high anxiety, chicken: low (poor recall with chicken and gun)
c: high anxiety doesn’t always cause poor recall (reductionist) due to unusualness
C: low ecological validity with lab experiment: may anticipated something to happen
C: unethical: exposing patients to blood + knife- trauma

70
Q

who researched into anxiety being a positive factor affecting EWT

A

yuville and cutshall

71
Q

outline yuville and cutshall’s study into anxiety being a positive factor affecting EWT

A

m: real life shooting in shop, shop owner shot thief dead, interviews held 4-5 months after incidents + compared with go interviews
r: high level anxiety: 88% accuracy; low anxiety: 78% accuracy
c: anxiety can be positive- fight/flight response triggered more alertness + improves memory due to becoming aware of more cues

72
Q

evaluation of anxiety being a positive factor affecting EWT

A

A: interviewed 58 witnesses to bank robberies- found more than 75% accuracy across all witnesses _ those directly involved more accurate -> anxiety doesn’t reduce EWT accuracy
C: temporal validity: outdated

73
Q

define cognitive interview

A

police technique doe interviewing witnesses of crime

74
Q

stages of cognitive interview

A
  1. report everything
  2. reinstate context
  3. change order
  4. change perspective
75
Q

evaluate cognitive interviews

A

A: watched film of violent crime + interviewed by police with CI, standard and hypnosis- CI better recall
A: found report everything + reinstate context better recall- RLA
C: time consuming- taking time to establish rapport

psychology (4 decks)

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