Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is memory?
The human memory as an information processing system has three basic processes. Name them

A

The Mental System for receiving, encoding, storing, organising, altering and retrieving information.
The system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind.
Human Memory as an Information Processing System has three basic processes;
1.Encoding-Encoding
Converting information into a form usable in memory

2.Storage
Retaining information in memory

3.Retrieval
Bringing to mind information stored in memory

Human memory can be represented as an information processing system consisting of three basic processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

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2
Q

Explain the stages of memory according to atkinson and shiffrin,1971

A

Stages of Memory Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)
1.Sensory Register/Memory (SR)

2.Short Term Memory (STM)

3.Long Term Memory (LTM)

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3
Q

Which stage of memory has a large capacity ?

A

Sensory register /memory

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4
Q

Which stage of memory is very brief, holding information for about a quarter of a second (250 or 300 milliseconds or 0.25 or 0.30 seconds ) and stores about exact image or replica of the sensory experience

A

Sensory register /memory

To move it into short term memory, pay attention to the information.

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5
Q

Which stage of memory allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for a maximum of about 30seconds?

A

Short term memory

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6
Q

Which stage of memory allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for a maximum of about 30seconds?

A

Short term memory

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7
Q

Which stage of memory stores information in both visual and acoustic coding but mostly on acoustic coding ?

A

Short term memory

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8
Q

Which stage of memory has a limited capacity (7+/-2),can hold five to nine bits or pieces of information at any one time(so the 7+/-2 is the five to nine bits cuz 7+2 is nine and minus 2 is 5)
Example is holding a seven digit telephone numbers short term memory just long term memory enough to dial it

A

Short term memory

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9
Q

To keep information longer in short term memory,what technique can be employed ?

To expand the capacity of short term memory,what technique can be employed ?

A

To keep information longer in STM maintenance rehearsal (consciously repeating the information) and elaborative rehearsal can be employed.

To expand the capacity of STM, CHUNKING is employed.
The grouping of a larger number of bits of information into a smaller number to aid recall.
Children typically learn the alphabet by chunking series of letters. That’s why they often say the letters lmnop as if they were one word

Elaborative rehearsal in short-term memory is a technique where new information is actively linked to existing knowledge to enhance retention. Instead of simply repeating information (like in maintenance rehearsal), elaborative rehearsal involves deeper processing, such as making connections, forming associations, or creating meaningful patterns. This helps transfer information to long-term memory more effectively.

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10
Q

Which stage of memory has unlimited capacity and is relatively permanent

A

Long term memory

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11
Q

How is information in long term memory stored?
Information in long term memory is indexed. How is it retrieve?

A

Long term memory is the 3rd stage which is responsible for long-term storage of information.
It has unlimited capacity and it is relatively permanent.
Information in LTM is indexed and it is retrieved using cues.
Information is stored in semantic codes.

Semantic codes and encoding are related concepts in memory, but they differ in scope:
• Encoding is the general process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. It includes different types, such as visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding.
• Semantic codes refer specifically to encoding based on meaning. Instead of remembering exact details (e.g., sounds or images), the brain stores information by its significance or context.

In short, semantic coding is a type of encoding that focuses on meaning rather than surface details.

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12
Q

Information is transferred from short term memory to long term memory through what ways?

A

Information are transferred from STM to LTM through :

Maintenance rehearsal and
Elaborative rehearsal

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13
Q

Kofi went to the consulting room and complained that he is unable to remember things properly. He has problem consolidating his memory. What will you advise as his doctor for him to do so that his memory will be consolidated?

A

I will advise person to sleep.

Sleeps promotes memory consolidation.

If Kofi has trouble consolidating his memory, I would advise him to:
1. Get Enough Sleep – Sleep, especially deep sleep, is crucial for memory consolidation. Aim for 7–9 hours per night.
2. Use Elaborative Rehearsal – Actively link new information to existing knowledge to strengthen memory retention.
3. Practice Repetition and Spaced Learning – Repeating information over time (spaced repetition) helps move it to long-term memory.
4. Engage in Physical Exercise – Regular exercise improves blood flow to the brain, enhancing memory consolidation.
5. Maintain a Healthy Diet – Omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and a balanced diet support brain function.
6. Reduce Stress – Chronic stress impairs memory, so relaxation techniques like deep breathing or meditation can help.
7. Avoid Distractions – Focused attention while learning aids in memory consolidation.
8. Use Mnemonics and Visualization – Creating mental images and associations makes information easier to remember.

If his memory issues persist, further medical evaluation may be needed to rule out underlying neurological conditions.

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14
Q

Explain the difference between internal cues and external cues

A

Internal and external cues play crucial roles in the retrieval of information from long-term memory. Here are the key differences between them:

  • Definition: Internal cues are internal states or thoughts that trigger the recall of information from long-term memory.
  • Examples:
    • Emotions: Remembering an event because you feel the same emotion you felt during the original event.
    • Thoughts: Recalling information because you think about something related to the original memory.
    • Physical States: Being in a similar physical state, such as hunger or fatigue, which helps in recalling specific memories (state-dependent memory).
  • Mechanism: Internal cues work by reactivating the mental state or cognitive context present during the original encoding of the memory.
  • Effectiveness: Often very effective, particularly when the internal state closely matches the state during the encoding of the memory (e.g., studying while caffeinated and taking a test while caffeinated).
  • Definition: External cues are environmental stimuli or contextual factors outside the individual that trigger the recall of information from long-term memory.
  • Examples:
    • Sensory Inputs: Smells, sounds, or sights that were present during the initial learning or experience.
    • Environmental Context: Being in the same location or setting where the memory was originally formed (context-dependent memory).
    • Objects or Words: Specific items or words that are associated with the original memory.
  • Mechanism: External cues work by providing sensory or contextual triggers that were associated with the original encoding of the memory.
  • Effectiveness: Highly effective, especially when the external cue closely resembles the conditions present during the encoding of the memory.
  • Internal Cues: Relate to internal states or conditions (emotions, thoughts, physical states) that help trigger memory recall.
  • External Cues: Relate to external stimuli or environmental factors (sensory inputs, context, objects) that help trigger memory recall.

Both internal and external cues are important for effective retrieval of long-term memories, and they often work together to enhance the recall process.

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15
Q

Explain elaborating and maintenance rehearsal

A

Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal are two different types of memory rehearsal techniques that help in retaining information. Here are the differences between them:

  1. Definition:
    • Maintenance rehearsal involves repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information to keep it in short-term memory.
  2. Purpose:
    • The primary goal is to maintain information in short-term memory for immediate use.
  3. Process:
    • It typically involves simple repetition without adding meaning or context to the information.
  4. Examples:
    • Repeating a phone number to yourself several times to remember it long enough to dial it.
    • Rehearsing a list of words or a sequence of numbers.
  5. Effectiveness:
    • It is effective for short-term retention but not for long-term memory storage.
    • Information is easily forgotten once rehearsal stops.

Maintenance rehearsal can help transfer information from short-term memory (STM) to long-term memory (LTM), but it is generally less effective than elaborative rehearsal for this purpose. Here’s a more nuanced explanation:

Maintenance Rehearsal:

•	Primary Function: Maintains information in short-term memory through repetition.
•	Transfer to Long-Term Memory: While maintenance rehearsal can sometimes result in the transfer of information to long-term memory, this transfer is often superficial and less robust. The information is not deeply processed or encoded, making it more susceptible to forgetting.
  1. Definition:
    • Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information to existing knowledge, adding meaning, and making connections to facilitate long-term retention.
  2. Purpose:
    • The primary goal is to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
  3. Process:
    • It involves thinking about the meaning of the information, creating associations, and making it more memorable by connecting it with existing knowledge.
  4. Examples:
    • Relating new vocabulary words to words you already know or to real-life experiences.
    • Creating a story or visual imagery to remember a list of items.
    • Explaining a concept to someone else in your own words.
  5. Effectiveness:
    • It is more effective for long-term retention and deeper understanding of the information.
    • Information processed through elaborative rehearsal is less likely to be forgotten.

Elaborating rehearsal: The process of strengthening new memories by forming meaningful associations between the information and existing memories or knowledge)

  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Focuses on repetition to keep information in short-term memory without adding meaning. Effective for short-term retention.
  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves adding meaning and making connections to store information in long-term memory. Effective for long-term retention and deeper understanding.

Key Differences:

1.	Depth of Processing:
•	Maintenance Rehearsal: Shallow processing, primarily through repetition.
•	Elaborative Rehearsal: Deep processing, involving meaning and associations.
2.	Effectiveness for Long-Term Retention:
•	Maintenance Rehearsal: Less effective for long-term retention; information is more likely to be forgotten.
•	Elaborative Rehearsal: Highly effective for long-term retention; information is more likely to be retained and retrieved.
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16
Q

What are semantic codes

A

A way that information is stored in long term memory. Semantic codes in long-term memory involve encoding information based on its meaning and understanding rather than its sensory features. Here are some examples:

1.	Conceptual Knowledge: Understanding that a dog is a domesticated animal belonging to the canine family.

Semantic codes in long-term memory refer to the way information is encoded and stored based on its meaning and understanding rather than its sensory characteristics. Unlike sensory memory, which holds information briefly in its original sensory form (like visual or auditory), semantic memory involves the encoding of meaning, concepts, and general knowledge.

17
Q

How can u use semantic codes to your advantage in learning?

A

You can use semantic memory to your advantage by employing various effective learning and memory techniques:

  1. Understanding Concepts: Focus on understanding the underlying concepts and meanings of what you are learning rather than just memorizing facts. This helps create a strong foundation in semantic memory.
  2. Relating Information: Make connections between new information and what you already know. Relating new knowledge to existing semantic networks enhances retention and makes it easier to retrieve information later.
  3. Organizing Information: Organize information into meaningful categories or hierarchies. This structure helps in creating a logical framework that aids memory retrieval.
  4. Using Mnemonics: While mnemonics themselves aren’t semantic codes, they often rely on creating meaningful associations that can be stored in semantic memory. Develop mnemonic devices that link new information with familiar concepts or vivid images.
  5. Repetition and Review: Regularly review and revisit information to reinforce semantic memory. Spacing out your study sessions (spaced repetition) is particularly effective in strengthening long-term memory retention.
  6. Teaching Others: Explaining concepts or teaching others reinforces your own understanding and helps solidify semantic memory. It forces you to retrieve and articulate information, enhancing retention.

By leveraging these strategies, you can enhance your ability to encode, store, and retrieve information effectively using semantic memory, leading to better retention and application of knowledge over time.

18
Q

State the two types of long term memory

A

Declarative Memory
“Knowing that…”
• Facts and figures
• Recalled with conscious effort

1.	Declarative Memory:
•	Definition: Also known as explicit memory, declarative memory involves the storage and retrieval of facts and events that can be consciously recalled and described.

•	Characteristics:
•	Involves conscious awareness and effortful retrieval.
•	Often verbalizable and can be communicated to others.
•	Supports learning of facts, concepts, and events through explicit learning processes

2.Procedural Memory “knowing how”
• Habits and motor behaviors
• Recalled without conscious effort

Definition: Also known as implicit memory, procedural memory involves the unconscious learning and retention of skills, habits, and procedures.
• Examples:
• Riding a bicycle
• Typing on a keyboard
• Playing a musical instrument

Characteristics:
• Involves automaticity and often does not require conscious awareness for retrieval.
• Learned through repetition and practice.
• Difficult to verbalize or describe explicitly; knowledge is demonstrated through actions rather than words.
• Function:
• Supports the execution of learned motor and cognitive skills.
• Less susceptible to forgetting compared to declarative memory due to its procedural nature.

19
Q

Define the two types of time frames of declarative memory

A

Retrospective:
Memory of past experiences and acquired information
Example: What did I eat for dinner last night?

2.Prospective
Memory of future actions
Example: What time is my doctor’s appointment today?

20
Q

Define the two types of declarative memory under long term memory

A

• Types:
• Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge and facts about the world, such as concepts, meanings, and vocabulary but not concerning time and place.
• Episodic Memory: Stores personal experiences and specific events tied to a particular time and place.

Yes, episodic memory is the type of long-term memory that stores personal experiences tied to specific times and places. It allows you to recall events when something triggers a related “episode” in your mind. For example, remembering your birthday party when you hear a specific song that played that day.

So the types of memory under long term memory are actually 3.
Procedural
Semantic
Episodic

21
Q

State the encoding for sensory memory,how it is stored and how it is retrieved

A

Sensory memory :
encoding- Iconic and echoic

Storage-Very brief, from a fraction of a second to 3 or 4 seconds
Retrieval-No retrieval; information is either lost or transferred to
short-term memory.

Iconic and echoic encoding are two ways sensory memory processes information:
1. Iconic Encoding (Visual Memory) – This stores images or visual information for a very brief period (about 0.2 to 0.5 seconds). It allows you to retain a quick “snapshot” of what you see, like remembering a flash of light or a passing car.
2. Echoic Encoding (Auditory Memory) – This stores sounds for a slightly longer duration (3–4 seconds). It helps in recognizing speech and processing auditory information, like recalling the last few words someone said even if you weren’t paying full attention.

Both types are part of sensory memory, acting as a temporary buffer before information is either discarded or transferred to short-term memory.

22
Q

State the encoding for short term memory,how it is stored and how it is retrieved

A

Short-term memory
:
Encoding-
Acoustic and visual, but primarily acoustic

Storage-
A maximum of about
30 seconds, but maintenance
rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal can maintain the memory longer or convert it into long-term memory

Retrieval-No retrieval; information is either lost or transferred to long term memory

No, they’re not exactly the same.
• Iconic vs. Visual: Iconic is just a fleeting image (a brief afterimage), while visual involves actively processing and storing what you see.
• Echoic vs. Sound (Acoustic): Echoic is a short-lived sound impression, while acoustic means actively holding and processing sounds in your mind.

So, iconic ≠ visual, and echoic ≠ sound (acoustic)—iconic and echoic are more passive and short-lived, while visual and acoustic involve deeper processing.

23
Q

State the encoding for long term memory, how it is stored and how it is retrieved

The two main categories of declarative memory are the types and the time frames. True or false

A

True

Encoding-
Acoustic, visual, and semantic, but primarily semantic

Storage- Long-term, possibly lifelong

Retrieval- Retrieval is assisted by retrieval cues and activation of semantic networks.

24
Q

Explain the three stage model of memory

A

1.So Sensory Input is given, it moves to Sensory Memory
Where Sensory impression lasts from a fraction of a second to several seconds and it grabs your attention
2. Sensory input moves to Short-Term Memory where the Information lasts up to 30 seconds unless actively rehearsed. If you rehearse the information, you will be able to
3. Store it in long term memory where information may last indefinitely. Then you retrieve it into your short term memory when you need it

25
Q

What is forgetting?
Define the four theories of forgetting and give examples.

A

The process of loss or inability to retrieve information that was previously stored.

The four theories are decay theory, interference theory,motivated forgetting, cue dependent forgetting (where there is state dependent learning ) and then the schema theory.

1.Decay Theory
Posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time. So if the info goes to sensory memory or short term memory and you don’t use it, it’ll decay. Example is Facts you learned in school gradually fade out of memory over time.

2.Interference Theory
The belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other (retroactive interference(you have previous knowledge of something and the new knowledge you’ve acquired on the same thing is interfering with the old knowledge you already have on it. Has to do with recollecting previous information but you can’t because the new information you have is interfering ) and proactive interference( recollecting current information but you can’t cuz the previous one you have is interfering) .)

Disruption of memory caused by interference
of previously learned material or newly learned material
Example is: After sitting through your biology lecture, you
forget what you learned in chemistry class the hour before.

3.Motivated Forgetting:
(it’s a type of defense mechanism by Freud )
Repression of anxiety-provoking material. Example is You cannot remember a traumatic childhood experience.

4.Retrieval or cue dependent Forgetting: The belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories. Failure to access material stored in memory because of encoding failure or lack of retrieval cues. Example-You have difficulty remembering something you know is stored in memory.
Types of retrieval forgetting;
Cue-dependent Forgetting- When information is not readily accessible because the cues necessary to retrieve it are missing or insufficient. Example is forgetting your laptop password because you’ve forgotten how you stored it or what you used to remember your password.
Encoding Failure-Information may never be encoded into long-term memory in the first place, often due to a lack of attention or insufficient processing.

  1. Schema theory

Yes, Schema Theory can be considered a separate theory of forgetting, distinct from Interference Theory, because it explains forgetting through distortion and reconstruction rather than just competition between memories.

How Schema Theory Explains Forgetting:
1. Memory Distortion → Schemas fill in gaps with prior knowledge, leading to false or altered memories.
• Example: If you witness a car accident but expect cars to stop at red lights, you might falsely remember the driver stopping even if they didn’t.
2. Omission of Details → Information that doesn’t fit your existing schemas might be ignored or forgotten.
• Example: If you don’t expect a librarian to have tattoos, you might forget that detail even after meeting one.
3. Confabulation (Fabrication of Missing Info) → When retrieving memories, your brain reconstructs them based on schemas, sometimes creating false details.
• Example: A witness recalling a crime scene might “remember” a weapon that wasn’t there because they assume crimes involve weapons.

Key Difference from Interference Theory:
• Interference Theory says new and old memories compete, causing forgetting.
• Schema Theory says forgetting happens because our brain modifies or reconstructs memories to fit prior knowledge.

Both explain forgetting, but Schema Theory focuses on memory distortion and reconstruction, not just interference.

26
Q

State and define the two measuring methods of forgetting

A

Recall task: Test of the ability to reproduce information held in memory
Example is You recite a phone number or the states in Nigeria.

Recognition task: Test of the ability to recognize material held You recognize in memory
Example is You recognize the correct answer in a multiple-choice question.

27
Q

1.After suffering a blow to the head in a car accident, you are unable to remember details of the accident itself. What type of amnesia is this?

2.Because of a brain disorder, you find it difficult to retain new information.
What type of amnesia is this?

A

Retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia

Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory of past events. Example :After suffering a blow to the head in a car accident, you are unable to remember details of the accident itself.

Anterograde is loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories
Example: Because of a brain disorder, you find it difficult to retain new information.

28
Q

Explain the concept of a working memory

Some info can move straight from the sensory memory to the long term memory instead of going through the short term memory. Example is if the info is traumatic

A

Comprises
• Central Executive
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad
• Phonological loop

So when information is received by you, your central executive decides where it should go. So if it’s visual, it’ll go to the visuospatial part then go back to the central executive where the central executive now sends it to the long term memory for storage
If the information is verbal and auditory, it’ll go to phonological loop and follow the same process

What you’re referring to is Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model (1974), not the Levels of Processing Theory by Craik and Lockhart.

This theory says there’s no short term memory

Key Components of Working Memory Model:
1. Phonological Loop → Deals with verbal and auditory information (e.g., remembering a phone number by repeating it).
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad → Handles visual and spatial information (e.g., imagining a map or recalling someone’s face).
3. Central Executive → The control center that directs attention, decides what to process, and coordinates the phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad.
4. Episodic Buffer (Added in 2000) → Integrates information from different sources and links it to long-term memory.

This model explains how we actively process information in short-term memory, rather than just storing it passively.

29
Q

Explain the levels of processing model by craik and Lockhart

A

LEVELS OF PROCESSING
• An alternative to the stage theory of memory.
• The distinction between STM and LTM is
a matter of degree rather than different kinds of memory.
• It is based on how incoming information is processed

The Levels of Processing (LOP) Theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggests that memory retention depends on how deeply information is processed rather than the structure of memory (like sensory, short-term, or long-term memory models).

Key Idea:
• Shallow processing → Focuses on surface-level details (e.g., recognizing letters or sounds). Leads to poor retention.
• Deep processing → Involves meaningful analysis (e.g., linking to prior knowledge, forming associations). Leads to better retention.

Levels of Processing:
1. Structural (Shallow) → Focuses on physical appearance (e.g., recognizing if a word is in capital letters).
2. Phonemic (Intermediate) → Focuses on sound (e.g., does the word rhyme with another word?).
3. Semantic (Deep) → Focuses on meaning (e.g., using the word in a sentence or relating it to something personal).

Conclusion:

The deeper the processing, the stronger the memory trace and the better the recall.