Memory

Question 1

What is memory?
The human memory as an information processing system has three basic processes. Name them

Answer 1

The Mental System for receiving, encoding, storing, organising, altering and retrieving information.
The system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind.
Human Memory as an Information Processing System has three basic processes;
1.Encoding-Encoding
Converting information into a form usable in memory

2.Storage
Retaining information in memory

3.Retrieval
Bringing to mind information stored in memory

Human memory can be represented as an information processing system consisting of three basic processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Question 2

Explain the stages of memory according to atkinson and shiffrin,1971

Answer 2

Stages of Memory Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)
1.Sensory Register/Memory (SR)

2.Short Term Memory (STM)

3.Long Term Memory (LTM)

Question 3

Which stage of memory has a large capacity ?

Answer 3

Sensory register /memory

Question 4

Which stage of memory is very brief, holding information for about a quarter of a second and stores about exact image or replica of the sensory experience

Answer 4

Sensory register /memory

Question 5

Which stage of memory allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for a maximum of about 30seconds?

Answer 5

Short term memory

Question 6

Which stage of memory allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for a maximum of about 30seconds?

Answer 6

Short term memory

Question 7

Which stage of memory stores information in both visual and acoustic coding but mostly on acoustic coding ?

Answer 7

Short term memory

Question 8

Which stage of memory has a limited capacity (7+/-2),can hold five to nine bits or pieces of information at any one time(so the 7+/-2 is the five to nine bits cuz 7+2 is nine and minus 2 is 5)
Example is holding a seven digit telephone numbers short term memory just long term memory enough to dial it

Answer 8

Short term memory

Question 9

To keep information longer in short term memory,what technique can be employed ?

To expand the capacity of short term memory,what technique can be employed ?

Answer 9

To keep information longer in STM maintenance rehearsal (consciously repeating the information) can be employed.

To expand the capacity of STM, CHUNKING is employed.
The grouping of a larger number of bits of information into a smaller number to aid recall.
Children typically learn the alphabet by chunking series of letters. That’s why they often say the letters lmnop as if they were one word

Question 10

Which stage of memory has unlimited capacity and is relatively permanent

Answer 10

Long term memory

Question 11

How is information in long term memory stored?
Information in long term memory is indexed. How is it retrieve?

Answer 11

Long term memory is the 3rd stage which is responsible for long-term storage of information.
It has unlimited capacity and it is relatively permanent.
Information in LTM is indexed and it is retrieved using cues.
Information is stored in semantic codes.

Question 12

Information is transferred from short term memory to long term memory through what ways?

Answer 12

Information are transferred from STM to LTM through :

Maintenance rehearsal and
Elaborative rehearsal

Question 13

Kofi went to the consulting room and complained that he is unable to remember things properly. He has problem consolidating his memory. What will you advise as his doctor for him to do so that his memory will be consolidated?

Answer 13

I will advise person to sleep.

Sleeps promotes memory consolidation.

Question 14

Explain the difference between internal cues and external cues

Answer 14

Internal and external cues play crucial roles in the retrieval of information from long-term memory. Here are the key differences between them:

• Definition: Internal cues are internal states or thoughts that trigger the recall of information from long-term memory.
• Examples:
  
  • Emotions: Remembering an event because you feel the same emotion you felt during the original event.
  • Thoughts: Recalling information because you think about something related to the original memory.
  • Physical States: Being in a similar physical state, such as hunger or fatigue, which helps in recalling specific memories (state-dependent memory).
• Mechanism: Internal cues work by reactivating the mental state or cognitive context present during the original encoding of the memory.
• Effectiveness: Often very effective, particularly when the internal state closely matches the state during the encoding of the memory (e.g., studying while caffeinated and taking a test while caffeinated).

• Definition: External cues are environmental stimuli or contextual factors outside the individual that trigger the recall of information from long-term memory.
• Examples:
  
  • Sensory Inputs: Smells, sounds, or sights that were present during the initial learning or experience.
  • Environmental Context: Being in the same location or setting where the memory was originally formed (context-dependent memory).
  • Objects or Words: Specific items or words that are associated with the original memory.
• Mechanism: External cues work by providing sensory or contextual triggers that were associated with the original encoding of the memory.
• Effectiveness: Highly effective, especially when the external cue closely resembles the conditions present during the encoding of the memory.

• Internal Cues: Relate to internal states or conditions (emotions, thoughts, physical states) that help trigger memory recall.
• External Cues: Relate to external stimuli or environmental factors (sensory inputs, context, objects) that help trigger memory recall.

Both internal and external cues are important for effective retrieval of long-term memories, and they often work together to enhance the recall process.

Question 15

Explain elaborating and maintenance rehearsal

Answer 15

Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal are two different types of memory rehearsal techniques that help in retaining information. Here are the differences between them:

1. Definition:
   
   • Maintenance rehearsal involves repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information to keep it in short-term memory.
2. Purpose:
   
   • The primary goal is to maintain information in short-term memory for immediate use.
3. Process:
   
   • It typically involves simple repetition without adding meaning or context to the information.
4. Examples:
   
   • Repeating a phone number to yourself several times to remember it long enough to dial it.
   • Rehearsing a list of words or a sequence of numbers.
5. Effectiveness:
   
   • It is effective for short-term retention but not for long-term memory storage.
   • Information is easily forgotten once rehearsal stops.

Maintenance rehearsal can help transfer information from short-term memory (STM) to long-term memory (LTM), but it is generally less effective than elaborative rehearsal for this purpose. Here’s a more nuanced explanation:

Maintenance Rehearsal:

•	Primary Function: Maintains information in short-term memory through repetition.
•	Transfer to Long-Term Memory: While maintenance rehearsal can sometimes result in the transfer of information to long-term memory, this transfer is often superficial and less robust. The information is not deeply processed or encoded, making it more susceptible to forgetting.

1. Definition:
   
   • Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information to existing knowledge, adding meaning, and making connections to facilitate long-term retention.
2. Purpose:
   
   • The primary goal is to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
3. Process:
   
   • It involves thinking about the meaning of the information, creating associations, and making it more memorable by connecting it with existing knowledge.
4. Examples:
   
   • Relating new vocabulary words to words you already know or to real-life experiences.
   • Creating a story or visual imagery to remember a list of items.
   • Explaining a concept to someone else in your own words.
5. Effectiveness:
   
   • It is more effective for long-term retention and deeper understanding of the information.
   • Information processed through elaborative rehearsal is less likely to be forgotten.

Elaborating rehearsal: The process of strengthening new memories by forming meaningful associations between the information and existing memories or knowledge)

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Focuses on repetition to keep information in short-term memory without adding meaning. Effective for short-term retention.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves adding meaning and making connections to store information in long-term memory. Effective for long-term retention and deeper understanding.

Key Differences:

1.	Depth of Processing:
•	Maintenance Rehearsal: Shallow processing, primarily through repetition.
•	Elaborative Rehearsal: Deep processing, involving meaning and associations.
2.	Effectiveness for Long-Term Retention:
•	Maintenance Rehearsal: Less effective for long-term retention; information is more likely to be forgotten.
•	Elaborative Rehearsal: Highly effective for long-term retention; information is more likely to be retained and retrieved.

Question 16

What are semantic codes

Answer 16

A way that information is stored in long term memory. Semantic codes in long-term memory involve encoding information based on its meaning and understanding rather than its sensory features. Here are some examples:

1.	Conceptual Knowledge: Understanding that a dog is a domesticated animal belonging to the canine family.

Semantic codes in long-term memory refer to the way information is encoded and stored based on its meaning and understanding rather than its sensory characteristics. Unlike sensory memory, which holds information briefly in its original sensory form (like visual or auditory), semantic memory involves the encoding of meaning, concepts, and general knowledge.

Question 17

What are semantic codes

Answer 17

A way that information is stored in long term memory. Semantic codes in long-term memory involve encoding information based on its meaning and understanding rather than its sensory features. Here are some examples:

1.	Conceptual Knowledge: Understanding that a dog is a domesticated animal belonging to the canine family.

Semantic codes in long-term memory refer to the way information is encoded and stored based on its meaning and understanding rather than its sensory characteristics. Unlike sensory memory, which holds information briefly in its original sensory form (like visual or auditory), semantic memory involves the encoding of meaning, concepts, and general knowledge.

Question 18

How can u use semantic codes to your advantage in learning?

Answer 18

You can use semantic memory to your advantage by employing various effective learning and memory techniques:

1. Understanding Concepts: Focus on understanding the underlying concepts and meanings of what you are learning rather than just memorizing facts. This helps create a strong foundation in semantic memory.
2. Relating Information: Make connections between new information and what you already know. Relating new knowledge to existing semantic networks enhances retention and makes it easier to retrieve information later.
3. Organizing Information: Organize information into meaningful categories or hierarchies. This structure helps in creating a logical framework that aids memory retrieval.
4. Using Mnemonics: While mnemonics themselves aren’t semantic codes, they often rely on creating meaningful associations that can be stored in semantic memory. Develop mnemonic devices that link new information with familiar concepts or vivid images.
5. Repetition and Review: Regularly review and revisit information to reinforce semantic memory. Spacing out your study sessions (spaced repetition) is particularly effective in strengthening long-term memory retention.
6. Teaching Others: Explaining concepts or teaching others reinforces your own understanding and helps solidify semantic memory. It forces you to retrieve and articulate information, enhancing retention.

By leveraging these strategies, you can enhance your ability to encode, store, and retrieve information effectively using semantic memory, leading to better retention and application of knowledge over time.

Question 19

State the two types of long term memory

Answer 19

Declarative Memory
“Knowing that…”
• Facts and figures
• Recalled with conscious effort

1.	Declarative Memory:
•	Definition: Also known as explicit memory, declarative memory involves the storage and retrieval of facts and events that can be consciously recalled and described.

•	Characteristics:
•	Involves conscious awareness and effortful retrieval.
•	Often verbalizable and can be communicated to others.
•	Supports learning of facts, concepts, and events through explicit learning processes

2.Procedural Memory “knowing how”
• Habits and motor behaviors
• Recalled without conscious effort

Definition: Also known as implicit memory, procedural memory involves the unconscious learning and retention of skills, habits, and procedures.
• Examples:
• Riding a bicycle
• Typing on a keyboard
• Playing a musical instrument

Characteristics:
• Involves automaticity and often does not require conscious awareness for retrieval.
• Learned through repetition and practice.
• Difficult to verbalize or describe explicitly; knowledge is demonstrated through actions rather than words.
• Function:
• Supports the execution of learned motor and cognitive skills.
• Less susceptible to forgetting compared to declarative memory due to its procedural nature.

Question 20

Define the two types of time frames of declarative memory

Answer 20

Retrospective:
Memory of past experiences and acquired information
Example: What did I eat for dinner last night?

2.Prospective
Memory of future actions
Example: What time is my doctor’s appointment today?

Question 21

Define the two types of declarative memory under long term memory

Answer 21

• Types:
• Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge and facts about the world, such as concepts, meanings, and vocabulary.
• Episodic Memory: Stores personal experiences and specific events tied to a particular time and place.

Question 22

State the encoding for sensory memory,how it is stored and how it is retrieved

Answer 22

Sensory memory :
encoding- Iconic and echoic

Storage-Very brief, from a fraction of a second to 3 or 4 seconds
Retrieval-No retrieval; information is either lost or transferred to
short-term memory.

Question 23

State the encoding for short term memory,how it is stored and how it is retrieved

Answer 23

Short-term memory
:
Encoding-
Acoustic and visual, but primarily acoustic

Storage-
A maximum of about
30 seconds, but maintenance
rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal can maintain the memory longer or convert it into long-term memory

Retrieval-No retrieval; information is either lost or transferred to long term memory

Question 24

State the encoding for long term memory, how it is stored and how it is retrieved

The two main categories of declarative memory are the types and the time frames. True or false

Answer 24

True

Encoding-
Acoustic, visual, and semantic, but primarily semantic

Storage- Long-term, possibly lifelong

Retrieval- Retrieval is assisted by retrieval cues and activation of semantic networks.

Question 25

Explain the three stage model of memory

Answer 25

1.So Sensory Input is given, it moves to Sensory Memory
Where Sensory impression lasts from a fraction of a second to several seconds and it grabs your attention
2. Sensory input moves to Short-Term Memory where the Information lasts up to 30 seconds unless actively rehearsed. If you rehearse the information, you will be able to
3. Store it in long term memory where information may last indefinitely. Then you retrieve it into your short term memory when you need it

Question 26

What is forgetting?
Define the four theories of forgetting and give examples.

Answer 26

The process of loss or inability to retrieve information that was previously stored.

1.Decay Theory
Posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time. Example is Facts you learned in school gradually fade out of memory over time.

2.Interference Theory
The belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other (retroactive interference(you have previous knowledge of something and the new knowledge you’ve acquired on the same thing is interfering with the old knowledge you already have on it. Has to do with recollecting previous information but you can’t because the new information you have is interfering ) and proactive interference( recollecting current information but you can’t cuz the previous one you have is interfering) .)

Disruption of memory caused by interference
of previously learned material or newly learned material
Example is: After sitting through your biology lecture, you
forget what you learned in chemistry class the hour before.

3.Motivated Forgetting:
Repression of anxiety-provoking material. Example is You cannot remember a traumatic childhood experience.
4.Retrieval Forgetting: The belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories. Failure to access material stored in memory because of encoding failure or lack of retrieval cues. Example-You have difficulty remembering something you know is stored in memory.
Types of retrieval forgetting;
Cue-dependent Forgetting- When information is not readily accessible because the cues necessary to retrieve it are missing or insufficient. Example is forgetting your laptop password because you’ve forgotten how you stored it or what you used to remember your password.
Encoding Failure-Information may never be encoded into long-term memory in the first place, often due to a lack of attention or insufficient processing.

Question 27

State and define the two measuring methods of forgetting

Answer 27

Recall task: Test of the ability to reproduce information held in memory
Example is You recite a phone number or the states in Nigeria.

Recognition task: Test of the ability to recognize material held You recognize in memory
Example is You recognize the correct answer in a multiple-choice question.

Question 28

1.After suffering a blow to the head in a car accident, you are unable to remember details of the accident itself. What type of amnesia is this?

2.Because of a brain disorder, you find it difficult to retain new information.
What type of amnesia is this?

Answer 28

Retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia

Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory of past events. Example :After suffering a blow to the head in a car accident, you are unable to remember details of the accident itself.

Anterograde is loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories
Example: Because of a brain disorder, you find it difficult to retain new information.