Foundations

Question 1

What is psychology

Answer 1

Definition:
•Greek roots: “Psyche” meaning “mind or soul ” and “logos”, meaning “study” or “knowledge”

•It is the SCIENCE of BEHAVIOUR and MENTAL PROCESSES.

Question 2

Explain psychology as a science

Answer 2

SCIENCE:
•It connotes systematic, methodical, logical, structured procedures as well as phenomenon which can be observed verified and tested.
•Psychologists attempt to understand people through careful controlled and systematic observation.
•It is not carried out haphazardly, neither is it supposed to be tainted by personal expectations, biases and prejudice.
•This allows for monitoring, scrutiny and questioning by other member of the profession or any person who is interested. Eg: Conformity experiment by Solomon Asch etc.

Question 3

Explain psychology as a behavior
Explain it as a mental process

Answer 3

BEHAVIOUR:
•Refers to all of a person’s activity, actions or responses that are either seen/observable (OVERT) such as laughing, talking, writing or unseen/unobservable (COVERT) such as thoughts, emotions, feelings and motives.
•MENTAL PROCESSES:
•Also refers to unobservable/covert behaviour.
•The use of both behaviour and mental processes in the definition of Psychology is usually done for emphasis and clarity.
•It can be concluded that whenever the word behaviour is used without mental processes or mind, then it stands for both overt and covert behaviours.

Question 4

What are the four main goals of psychology

Answer 4

Describe
Understand or explain
Predict
Control or influence or modify

Question 5

Explain describe as a goal of psychology
How is data gathered in this type of goal?

Answer 5

DESCRIBE:
➢Usually preceded by observation, it involves Naming, Classification and provision of other details and characteristics of a given behaviour or phenomenon.
➢Description only gives information on what is there/exists, but not why it exists.
➢Primarily data is gathered in an objective and accurate manner.

Question 6

Explain understanding or explaining as a goal of psychology

Answer 6

➢This is the ability to explain the underlying factors(s) of a given behaviour after careful description. Usually the cases of a given behaviour can be stated.
➢Understand sometimes is tentative; this is because certain factors may change, leading to a change of alteration of the phenomenon.

Question 7

Explain predicting as a goal of psychology

Answer 7

PREDICT:
➢The ability to forecast or accurately anticipate the occurrence of an event or behaviour on the basis of established principles or facts.
➢The ability to predict is a function of one’s knowledge of the condition(s) which lead to a given phenomenon.

Question 8

Explain control or influence or modify as a goal of psychology

Answer 8

CONTROL/INFLUENCE/MODIFY:
➢This doesn’t mean a threat to a person’s freedom or rights or manipulating them to do your will.
➢It simply refers to altering conditions that influence behaviour in predictable ways.
➢It involves changing, adding and/or removing prevailing conditions which influence behaviour.

Question 9

State and explain the four main research methods used in psychology

Answer 9

Experiment
Naturalistic Observation
Case study
Survey

Observation:
You just take a look. You don’t change any factors and you don’t manipulate any variable

Case study:(it’s a qualitative research)
You take a person or a case and person tells you the things they do that makes them do what they do.
You’ll use self report to measure the variables in the case study.

I understand, and you are correct. Let’s detail the four main research methods in psychology as you specified:

1. Experimentation:
   
   • Description: This method involves manipulating one or more independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable while controlling for extraneous factors. Maintaining control over conditions but sometimes too much control may lead to an unnatural situation.
   • Explanation: Experimentation allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships. By creating controlled environments, researchers can isolate the impact of the manipulated variable. Random assignment to experimental and control groups helps in minimizing biases and ensuring that observed effects are due to the independent variable rather than other factors.
2. Case Study:
   
   • Description: This method involves an in-depth study of an individual or a small group over an extended period. It is an intensive investigation of the person rather than a representative sample usually because the observed is rare or unique
   • Explanation: Case studies provide detailed qualitative data and can offer insights into rare or unique conditions, behaviors, or phenomena. While they offer depth, their findings are often not generalizable to larger populations. They are useful for generating hypotheses and understanding complex issues in a detailed context.
3. Observation:
   
   • Description: This method entails observing and recording behavior in a naturalistic or controlled setting without interference. It involves watching and recording behaviour as it naturally occurs
   • Explanation: Observational studies can be naturalistic, where behavior is observed in its natural environment, or controlled, where conditions are managed by the researcher. This method provides a real-world perspective on behavior but can be limited by observer bias and the inability to infer causation. While both controlled observation and experimentation take place in controlled environments, there are key differences between the two in terms of purpose, design, and methodology:

Purpose:
- To observe and record behaviors in a controlled setting without manipulating the independent variable.
- Focuses on describing and documenting behaviors as they occur under controlled conditions.

Design:
- Researchers set up a controlled environment but do not actively intervene or manipulate variables.
- The goal is to observe how subjects naturally behave in the given setting.

Methodology:
- Observational techniques are used to gather data, such as checklists, video recordings, or direct observations.
- Data is typically qualitative, focusing on detailed descriptions of behaviors.

Example:
- Observing interactions between children and caregivers in a structured playroom to understand attachment behaviors without manipulating any conditions.

Purpose:
- To test hypotheses by manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on the dependent variable.
- Focuses on establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Design:
- Researchers manipulate the independent variable(s) while controlling other extraneous variables to isolate the effect of the manipulation.
- Participants are randomly assigned to different groups (e.g., treatment and control groups) to ensure comparability.

Methodology:
- Experimental techniques include randomization, blinding, and use of control groups.
- Data is typically quantitative, focusing on measurements and statistical analysis to determine the effect of the manipulation.

Example:
- Conducting a randomized controlled trial to test the efficacy of a new drug, where one group receives the drug and the other receives a placebo, and their outcomes are compared.

1. Manipulation of Variables:
- Controlled Observation: No active manipulation of the independent variable; the focus is on observing behavior.
- Experimentation: Active manipulation of the independent variable(s) to test specific hypotheses and measure effects.

2. Purpose:
- Controlled Observation: Descriptive; aims to document and describe behaviors as they occur under controlled conditions.
- Experimentation: Explanatory; aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

3. Design Elements:
- Controlled Observation: Structured environment, no manipulation, often no random assignment.
- Experimentation: Includes random assignment, manipulation of independent variables, control groups, and blinding to minimize bias.

4. Data Collection:
- Controlled Observation: Primarily qualitative data (detailed behavioral observations).
- Experimentation: Primarily quantitative data (measurable outcomes of the manipulation).

Question 1:
Which of the following best differentiates a controlled observation from an experiment?
- A. The use of a controlled environment
- B. The random assignment of participants to groups
- C. The manipulation of the independent variable
- D. The collection of qualitative data

Answer: C. The manipulation of the independent variable

Question 2:
A researcher sets up a lab where participants’ stress levels are observed while performing a series of tasks, but the tasks themselves are not altered or manipulated. What type of research method is this?
- A. Naturalistic observation
- B. Controlled observation
- C. Experimentation
- D. Case study

Answer: B. Controlled observation

Question 3:
In an experiment, researchers administer a new drug to one group and a placebo to another group to measure changes in blood pressure. This is an example of:
- A. Controlled observation
- B. Naturalistic observation
- C. Case study
- D. Experimentation

Answer: D. Experimentation

4. Survey:
   
   • Description: This method involves collecting data from a large number of respondents through questionnaires or interviews. An attempt to estimate opinions, characteristics, or behaviour. It can be conducted through interviews, questionnaires or public records.
   • Explanation: Surveys are useful for gathering information on attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors from a broad population. They can be administered in various formats (e.g., online, face-to-face, by phone). The reliability and validity of surveys depend on the design of the questions and the sampling method. They are efficient for collecting large amounts of data but may be subject to response biases.

Survey: sharing the questionnaires
Surveys are widely used in research

Surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observation each have distinct strengths and limitations when it comes to gathering information on attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors. Here’s how each method compares:

Strengths:
- Broad Reach: Surveys can be distributed to a large number of people, making them useful for gathering data from a broad population.
- Quantifiable Data: Surveys can provide quantifiable data through structured questions and scales, which makes it easier to analyze and generalize results.
- Standardization: Surveys use standardized questions, which allows for consistent data collection across all respondents.

Limitations:
- Self-Report Bias: Responses may be influenced by social desirability or inaccurate self-perception.
- Limited Depth: Surveys often provide a surface-level understanding of attitudes and beliefs, lacking depth in responses.

Example:
- A nationwide survey asking individuals about their experiences with mental health services.

Strengths:
- In-Depth Understanding: Case studies provide a detailed and comprehensive examination of a single individual or group, offering deep insights into specific cases.
- Contextual Information: They allow for a thorough exploration of the context and background of the subject, which can reveal complex interactions and unique circumstances.

Limitations:
- Limited Generalizability: Findings from case studies are often specific to the individual or group studied and may not be generalizable to a broader population.
- Time-Consuming: Conducting a case study can be resource-intensive and time-consuming.

Example:
- A detailed case study of a patient with a rare psychological disorder, including their personal history, treatment experiences, and coping strategies.

Strengths:
- Real-World Context: Provides insights into how behaviors and interactions occur in natural settings, offering ecological validity.
- Behavioral Data: Captures actual behaviors rather than self-reported data, which can be useful for understanding how people act in real-life situations.

Limitations:
- Lack of Control: Limited ability to control extraneous variables or influence the environment, which can make it difficult to isolate specific factors.
- Observer Bias: The presence of the observer or their interpretation of behaviors can introduce bias.

Example:
- Observing social interactions among adolescents in a school setting to understand peer influence on behavior.

• Surveys: Ideal for gathering broad, quantifiable data from a large population. They provide a snapshot of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors but may lack depth.
• Case Studies: Useful for obtaining detailed, qualitative insights into individual or group experiences. They provide depth but may not be generalizable.
• Naturalistic Observation: Effective for studying behaviors in real-life settings without interference, offering contextual understanding but with less control over variables.

Question 1:
Which research method is most suitable for obtaining detailed, in-depth information about a single individual’s experiences and behaviors?
- A. Survey
- B. Case study
- C. Naturalistic observation
- D. Experiment

Answer: B. Case study

Question 2:
A researcher wants to understand how people interact in their daily lives without manipulating the environment. What is the most appropriate method?
- A. Survey
- B. Case study
- C. Naturalistic observation
- D. Experiment

Answer: C. Naturalistic observation

Question 3:
Which research method would be most appropriate for assessing the general attitudes of a large population towards healthcare policy?
- A. Case study
- B. Naturalistic observation
- C. Survey
- D. Controlled observation

Answer: C. Survey

Let’s break down each research methodology with examples relevant to clinical scenarios:

1. Experiment:
   
   • Explanation: In an experiment, researchers manipulate one variable (independent variable) and measure its effect on another variable (dependent variable), while controlling other variables.
   • Example: A clinical trial where one group of patients receives a new drug (treatment group) and another group receives a placebo (control group). Researchers measure the effect of the drug on disease symptoms to determine its efficacy.
2. Survey:
   
   • Explanation: Surveys collect data from people about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics, often using questionnaires or interviews.
   • Example: A survey asking patients about their satisfaction with hospital services, which might include questions about wait times, quality of care, and interactions with healthcare staff.
3. Naturalistic Observation:
   
   • Explanation: This involves observing and recording behaviors as they naturally occur, without intervention or manipulation.
   • Example: A study observing the interactions between nurses and patients in a hospital ward to understand communication patterns and identify areas for improvement.
4. Case Study:
   
   • Explanation: A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person or a small group, focusing on rare or unique cases.
   • Example: An in-depth study of a patient with a rare disease, documenting their medical history, treatment, and outcomes to gain insights that might not be possible through larger studies.

These examples should help you recognize which research methodology is being described in clinical MCQ scenarios. Here are some sample questions to illustrate:

1. Experiment:
   
   • Question: Which research method involves comparing the effects of a new drug with a placebo in a controlled setting?
   • Answer: Experiment
2. Survey:
   
   • Question: Which method would be most appropriate for collecting data on patient satisfaction with hospital services?
   • Answer: Survey
3. Naturalistic Observation:
   
   • Question: Which method involves watching and recording nurse-patient interactions in a hospital ward without intervening?
   • Answer: Naturalistic Observation

Controlling variables in an experiment involves ensuring that extraneous factors do not influence the outcome of the study. Here are some key strategies to achieve this:

1. Randomization:
   
   • Explanation: Assign participants to different groups (e.g., treatment and control groups) randomly to ensure that each group is similar at the start of the experiment.
   • Example: Randomly assigning patients to receive either a new medication or a placebo.
2. Blinding:
   
   • Single-blind: Participants do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group, reducing bias.
   • Double-blind: Neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the treatment or control group, further reducing bias.
   • Example: In a double-blind study, both patients and doctors do not know which patients are receiving the new drug and which are receiving the placebo.
3. Control Groups:
   
   • Explanation: Use a control group that does not receive the experimental treatment to compare results against the treatment group.
   • Example: In a study testing a new drug, the control group receives a placebo while the treatment group receives the drug.
4. Standardization:
   
   • Explanation: Keep all other conditions constant across all groups, except for the independent variable.
   • Example: Ensuring all patients in a drug trial have similar diets, exercise routines, and follow the same procedures for taking the medication.
5. Matching:
   
   • Explanation: Pair participants in the treatment and control groups based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, disease severity) to ensure these variables are equally distributed.
   • Example: Matching patients in a study on hypertension so that both the treatment and control groups have similar average blood pressure levels at the start.
6. Statistical Control:
   
   • Explanation: Use statistical methods to account for the influence of extraneous variables.
   • Example: Using regression analysis to control for factors like age, gender, and baseline health status when analyzing the effect of a new treatment.

These methods help ensure that the observed effects in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounded by other factors.

Lack of proper control over variables can lead to incorrect conclusions in an experiment. Here’s how failing to control extraneous variables can bring about wrong answers:

1. Confounding Variables:
   
   • Explanation: When an extraneous variable influences both the independent and dependent variables, it can confound the results, making it difficult to determine the true effect of the independent variable.
   • Example: If a study on a new antihypertensive drug does not control for participants’ dietary sodium intake, differences in blood pressure outcomes might be due to variations in diet rather than the drug itself.
2. Bias:
   
   • Explanation: Bias occurs when the research process or data collection method unfairly favors certain outcomes.
   • Example: In an unblinded study, if doctors know which patients are receiving the new treatment, they might unconsciously treat these patients differently, affecting the study’s outcomes.
3. Placebo Effect:
   
   • Explanation: Participants’ expectations can influence their behavior and outcomes.
   • Example: If participants know they are receiving a new drug, they might report feeling better simply because they expect it to work, not because the drug is effective.
4. Measurement Error:
   
   • Explanation: Inconsistent or inaccurate measurement of variables can lead to erroneous results.
   • Example: If blood pressure is measured with different types of devices or under varying conditions, the variability in measurements might obscure the true effect of the treatment.
5. Selection Bias:
   
   • Explanation: When the sample is not representative of the population, the results may not be generalizable.
   • Example: If a study on a new diabetes drug only includes young adults, the findings may not apply to older adults who might respond differently to the treatment.
6. Hawthorne Effect:
   
   • Explanation: Participants may alter their behavior because they know they are being studied.
   • Example: Patients in a study might adhere more strictly to their medication regimen or improve their lifestyle habits simply because they are under observation, skewing the results.
7. Lack of Standardization:
   
   • Explanation: Inconsistent procedures can introduce variability that affects the outcomes.
   • Example: If a clinical trial does not standardize the way medication is administered, differences in administration methods could affect the drug’s efficacy.

By not controlling these factors, the results can become unreliable, leading to incorrect conclusions about the effectiveness or safety of a treatment. Proper control ensures that the observed effects are genuinely due to the independent variable, thus providing accurate and reliable results.

4. Case Study:
   
   • Question: Which method would be best for an in-depth investigation of a single patient with a rare genetic disorder?
   • Answer: Case Study

Here are the data collection methods appropriate for each research method:

Data Collection Methods:
1. Self-Report: Participants might fill out questionnaires or surveys about their symptoms, experiences, or side effects.
- Example: Patients in a clinical trial for a new drug report their pain levels on a weekly survey.
2. Behavioral Measures: Observations and recordings of participants’ behaviors in response to the intervention.
- Example: Monitoring how often patients in a rehabilitation program perform prescribed exercises.
3. Physiological Assessments: Measurements of physical changes or biomarkers to assess the effects of the intervention.
- Example: Measuring blood pressure and heart rate in a study testing a new antihypertensive medication.

Data Collection Methods:
1. Self-Report: Surveys and questionnaires used to gather data on opinions, behaviors, and characteristics.
- Example: A survey asking patients about their satisfaction with healthcare services.
2. Behavioral Measures: Although less common in surveys, researchers might include some observational questions or sections.
- Example: A survey including questions where participants report their frequency of exercising or smoking.
3. Physiological Assessments: Rarely used in surveys, but can be included if the survey is part of a larger study involving physical exams or lab tests.
- Example: A health survey that includes self-reported data on physical activity and also asks participants to submit blood samples for cholesterol testing.

Data Collection Methods:
1. Self-Report: Not typically used directly in naturalistic observation, but might be combined for comprehensive data.
- Example: Observing patient behaviors in a waiting room and then asking them to fill out a questionnaire about their stress levels.
2. Behavioral Measures: Primary method, involving direct observation and recording of behaviors as they occur naturally.
- Example: Using a checklist to record how often healthcare workers wash their hands during their shifts.
3. Physiological Assessments: Can be integrated if the study requires linking observed behaviors with physiological responses.
- Example: Observing interactions in a high-stress environment and concurrently measuring heart rates with wearable monitors.

Data Collection Methods:
1. Self-Report: In-depth interviews and questionnaires to gather detailed personal histories and subjective experiences.
- Example: Conducting detailed interviews with a patient who has a rare neurological disorder.
2. Behavioral Measures: Observations of the individual’s behavior in various contexts to gather comprehensive data.
- Example: Recording the daily routines and coping strategies of a patient with a chronic illness.
3. Physiological Assessments: Often used to gather detailed physiological data specific to the case being studied.
- Example: Monitoring brain activity through EEG in a patient with epilepsy to correlate with behavioral observations and self-reported symptoms.

These combinations illustrate how different data collection methods can be employed within various research methodologies to gather comprehensive and reliable data.

Question 10

What are the three things used to measure variables in psychology?

Answer 10

MEASURING VARIABLES USING:
•Self-report: Verbal statements about how a person feel, think, or behave.
•Behavioural: Quantifying observations of how subjects actually behave.
Behavioural: You have a tool and based on subject behaviors, you quantify the observations
•Physiological: Recording physical changes eg. Using EEG

In psychology, researchers often measure variables using three main methods: self-report, behavioral, and physiological measures. Here’s a detailed explanation of each:

1. Self-Report Measures:
   
   • Description: These involve asking participants to provide information about themselves, usually through questionnaires, surveys, or interviews.
   • Explanation: Self-report measures can gather data on a wide range of psychological variables, such as attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and experiences. They rely on participants’ introspection and honesty.
   • Example: A survey asking participants to rate their level of anxiety on a scale from 1 to 10.
2. Behavioral Measures:
   
   • Description: These involve observing and recording behaviors as they occur. The focus is on what people do rather than what they say about themselves.
   • Explanation: Behavioral measures provide objective data about actions and reactions. They can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled environments.
   • Example: Measuring the number of times a participant engages in a specific behavior, such as pressing a button in response to a stimulus in a reaction time task.
3. Physiological Measures:
   
   • Description: These involve recording biological data to understand the physiological processes underlying psychological phenomena.
   • Explanation: Physiological measures can provide insights into the body’s responses to various psychological states and processes. They often require specialized equipment and can include measures such as heart rate, brain activity, and hormone levels.
   • Example: Using an electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure brain wave activity during different stages of sleep.

These three types of measures provide a comprehensive approach to understanding psychological phenomena, allowing researchers to capture self-reported experiences, observable behaviors, and underlying physiological processes.

Self-report is a method whereby subjects provide verbal statements about how they feel, what they think, or how they behave. The usefulness of self-reports is limited because subjects may lie or may not know their true thoughts or feelings. Self report is very subjective
• Behavioural measures are quantified observations of how subjects actually behave. Example is having a checklist for your naturalistic observations
• Physiological assessments involve recording physical changes (more often are used the electroencephalograms and GSP-galvanic skin response).

Here are some MCQ clinical scenarios based on the different methods of data collection:

Question 1:
A psychologist is conducting a study to understand the prevalence of anxiety disorders among university students. The students are asked to complete a self-report questionnaire that includes questions about their anxiety levels, frequency of panic attacks, and coping mechanisms. What is a major limitation of using self-report methods in this study?
- A. It allows for a large amount of data to be collected quickly
- B. It provides detailed insights into the students’ internal states
- C. Responses may be biased due to social desirability or inaccurate self-perception
- D. It ensures objective and quantifiable data

Answer: C. Responses may be biased due to social desirability or inaccurate self-perception

Question 2:
Researchers are observing the behavior of children with ADHD in a classroom setting. They use a checklist to record instances of disruptive behavior, such as talking out of turn and leaving their seats without permission. Which of the following best describes this method of data collection?
- A. Self-report
- B. Behavioral measures
- C. Physiological assessments
- D. Case study

Answer: B. Behavioral measures

Question 3:
A study investigates the stress levels of surgeons during operations by measuring their heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin response (GSR). What type of data collection method is being used in this study?
- A. Self-report
- B. Behavioral measures
- C. Physiological assessments
- D. Naturalistic observation

Answer: C. Physiological assessments

Question 4:
In a clinical trial for a new antidepressant, participants are asked to report their mood and symptoms through weekly self-assessment questionnaires. Some participants consistently report higher levels of improvement than their observed behavior suggests. What is a likely explanation for this discrepancy?
- A. The participants’ responses are influenced by the placebo effect
- B. The self-report questionnaires are not specific enough
- C. The participants are experiencing side effects
- D. The participants are lying or do not accurately perceive their own symptoms

Answer: D. The participants are lying or do not accurately perceive their own symptoms

Question 5:
A study on hand hygiene compliance among healthcare workers uses video recordings to observe and quantify instances of hand washing and use of hand sanitizer. What is an advantage of using this behavioral measure over self-report methods in this context?
- A. It captures the healthcare workers’ perceptions of their hand hygiene practices
- B. It provides objective data on actual behavior rather than reported behavior
- C. It is less time-consuming than self-report questionnaires
- D. It ensures that all healthcare workers follow the same protocol

Answer: B. It provides objective data on actual behavior rather than reported behavior

Question 6:
In a study examining the physiological responses to stress, participants are exposed to a stressful task while their electroencephalogram (EEG) and galvanic skin response (GSR) are recorded. What is a key benefit of using physiological assessments in this study?
- A. They are easy to administer and require minimal training
- B. They provide subjective measures of the participants’ stress levels
- C. They offer objective and quantifiable data on physiological changes
- D. They can capture the participants’ emotional responses through self-report

Answer: C. They offer objective and quantifiable data on physiological changes

These questions should help you understand and identify the appropriate data collection methods in clinical scenarios.

Question 11

How the different measuring variables relate with the different research methods

Answer 11

Relating the three types of measuring variables (self-report, behavioral, and physiological) to the four main research methods (experimentation, case study, observation, and survey) in psychology, we can see how each variable type is commonly utilized within each method:

1. Experimentation:
   
   • Self-Report Measures: Used to collect data on participants’ subjective experiences, attitudes, or perceptions. For example, participants might complete a questionnaire on their mood before and after an experimental manipulation.
   • Behavioral Measures: Often used to observe and record specific actions or reactions as a direct outcome of the experimental manipulation. For instance, measuring response times in a cognitive task.
   • Physiological Measures: Employed to gather data on biological responses to experimental conditions. Examples include measuring heart rate or brain activity using EEG.
2. Case Study:
   
   • Self-Report Measures: Used to gather detailed personal histories and subjective experiences from the individual or small group being studied. Interviews and diaries are common tools.
   • Behavioral Measures: Observing and documenting specific behaviors in real-life or clinical settings. For example, tracking changes in behavior over time in a patient with a rare psychological condition.
   • Physiological Measures: May involve monitoring biological aspects of the subject, such as neuroimaging studies to understand brain function in a unique case.
3. Observation:
   
   • Self-Report Measures: Sometimes used in conjunction with observation to understand participants’ perspectives on their behavior. However, pure observational studies typically focus less on self-reports.
   • Behavioral Measures: The primary focus, involving the systematic recording of observable actions in naturalistic or controlled environments. Examples include noting frequency, duration, and context of specific behaviors.
   • Physiological Measures: Can be integrated to provide additional data on biological responses during observed behaviors. For example, measuring stress responses through cortisol levels while observing interaction patterns.
4. Survey:
   
   • Self-Report Measures: The core method for collecting data in surveys. Participants provide information on their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through questionnaires or interviews.
   • Behavioral Measures: Less common in surveys but can be included through questions about past behaviors or intentions. For example, asking participants how often they exercise.
   • Physiological Measures: Rarely used in surveys due to practical constraints, but sometimes self-reports of physiological symptoms are included (e.g., self-reported health status).

By matching each measuring variable type to the appropriate research method, researchers can design comprehensive studies that utilize the strengths of each approach to investigate psychological phenomena effectively.

Question 12

In what centuries did psychology start as a scientific discipline?
Who is the founder of experimental psychology ?
Who introduced structuralism as a psychology theory?
When was the first psychological lab in Germany established?

Answer 12

Psychology didn’t start as a science. It started as a scientific discipline in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

From ancient civilizations where Greek and Roman philosophers like Plato and Aristotle contemplated human nature, the mind’s nature and location.
•Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and concept of the mind as a “tabula rasa” (empty until it was “written upon” by experience).
•Modern psychology as a distinct scientific discipline emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
•Wilhelm Wundt, credited as the founder of experimental Psychology, established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, introducing Structuralism.
•From there, it evolved through various schools of thoughts, incorporating new theories, methods, and areas of study. READ MORE ON THE HISTORY

Question 13

What was the approach of Doc Wilhelm concerning structuralism as a school of thought in psychology

Answer 13

The founder of scientific psychology is often considered to be Wilhelm Wundt.
.”

Structuralism
•Attempted to identify the basic elements and structure of conscious experience (feelings, sensations and images).
•Depended on a method called introspection: participants verbally report the contents of their conscious experience. Introspection is a method of self-observation where individuals examine and report their own internal thoughts, feelings, and mental states. This process involves looking inward to understand personal experiences and cognitive processes.
•Pioneers include Wilhelm Wundt.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920):
- Contribution: He established the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This event is widely regarded as the formal beginning of psychology as an experimental and scientific discipline.
- Approach: Wundt’s approach focused on introspection, a method where trained observers reported their conscious experiences in response to stimuli. He aimed to analyze the structure of the mind, which led to the development of structuralism.
- Legacy: Wundt’s work laid the foundation for future experimental methods in psychology, influencing many subsequent psychologists and contributing to the development of various psychological schools of thought.

Question 14

Explain functionalism as a school of thought in psychology?
Who pioneered functionalism?

Answer 14

Functionalism
•Concerned with the purposes of consciousness – what the mind does and why and how that information could be put to practical use.
•Pioneered by William James

Example:

•	Studying how memory processes help individuals solve everyday problems and make decisions in their environment.

Summary

•	Structuralism: Focuses on identifying and analyzing the basic elements of consciousness through introspection and controlled experiments.
•	Functionalism: Focuses on the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior, emphasizing how they help individuals adapt to their environments.

MCQ Examples

Question 1:
Which psychological approach is primarily concerned with breaking down mental processes into their most basic elements?

•	A. Functionalism
•	B. Structuralism
•	C. Behaviorism
•	D. Humanism

Answer: B. Structuralism

Question 2:
Which approach focuses on understanding how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments?

•	A. Structuralism
•	B. Functionalism
•	C. Psychoanalysis
•	D. Cognitive psychology

Answer: B. Functionalism

Question 3:
Which method is most commonly associated with structuralism?

•	A. Observational studies
•	B. Introspection
•	C. Case studies
•	D. Experimental manipulation

Answer: B. Introspection

Question 15

Which school of thought in psychology is Based on the belief that unconscious mind exerts great control over behaviour and that early childhood experiences are a major influence on personality development.
Who pioneered this school of thought?

Answer 15

psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic

Pioneered by Sigmund Freud

Question 16

Explain behaviorism as a school of thought in psychology
What is the major emphasis in this school of thought?
Which people pioneered this school of thought?

Answer 16

Behaviourism
•Focuses on observable behaviours without speculating about mental processes such as thinking; a major emphasis is that learning plays a key role in controlling and influencing all behaviours.

•Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner (Burrhus Frederic Skinner) was a prominent American psychologist known for his contributions to the field of behaviorism. His work focused on how behavior is influenced by its consequences and how learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment.

Key Concepts and Contributions:

1. Operant Conditioning:• Definition: A theory of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Skinner proposed that behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they are followed by positive reinforcement (rewards) and less likely if they are followed by punishment.

No, B.F. Skinner did not develop classical conditioning. Classical conditioning was first described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. Pavlov’s experiments with dogs led to the discovery of classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning, where an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) to elicit a conditioned response (salivation).

B.F. Skinner is known for his work on operant conditioning. Skinner’s research focused on how behaviors are influenced by consequences such as rewards (reinforcement) and punishments. His work built on Thorndike’s principles, particularly the Law of Effect, to develop the theory of operant conditioning, which involves reinforcing or punishing behavior to increase or decrease its occurrence.

In summary:
- Classical Conditioning: Developed by Ivan Pavlov.
- Operant Conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner.

John B. Watson was a pioneering figure in the field of psychology, particularly known for his contributions to the development of behaviorism. His key contributions include:

1. Founding Behaviorism:
   
   • Definition: Watson is considered one of the founders of behaviorism, a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental states. He argued that psychology should focus on measurable and observable phenomena.
   • Principle: Watson believed that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment and that psychology should be a science based on observable behavior.
2. Little Albert Experiment:
   
   • Experiment: In this famous experiment conducted in 1920, Watson and his colleague Rosalie Rayner demonstrated that emotional responses, such as fear, could be conditioned in a child. They exposed a baby, Little Albert, to a white rat and paired it with a loud noise, causing the child to develop a fear of the rat and other similar stimuli.
   • Significance: This experiment provided evidence for classical conditioning in humans and showed that emotional responses could be conditioned and generalized.
3. Advocacy of the S-R (Stimulus-Response) Model:
   
   • Definition: Watson promoted the idea that psychology should focus on the stimulus-response (S-R) relationship, emphasizing how stimuli in the environment trigger specific responses or behaviors.
   • Principle: According to this model, behavior can be understood and predicted based on the relationship between stimuli and the responses they elicit.

Overall, Watson’s work established behaviorism as a major school of thought in psychology and shifted the focus of psychological research towards observable and measurable behaviors.

Question 17

What is gestalt as a school of thought or a theory in psychology?
Explain the idea of emergence
Who pioneered gestalt?

Answer 17

The term “Gestalt” is German for “form” or “shape,”
•Major contributions to how we perceive the word as different from the sum of its individual elements.
•One of the central tenets is the idea of emergence, which suggests that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
•They argue that perception is not simply the result of adding up individual sensations but involves the spontaneous organization of sensory inputs into meaningful configurations.
•Pioneered by Max Wertheimer.

Sure! Imagine you have a big puzzle with lots of small pieces. If you look at each piece by itself, you might not understand what the picture is. But when you put all the pieces together, you see a complete picture—like a beautiful landscape or a cool picture of a superhero.

Gestalt psychology is like looking at that puzzle picture instead of just the individual pieces. It teaches us that when we see something, we don’t just look at each tiny part separately. Instead, our brain puts everything together to understand the big picture all at once.

So, Gestalt is about how our mind organizes things to see them as a whole picture, not just a bunch of little pieces. This idea was first introduced by a guy named Max Wertheimer.

Education

•	Application: Teachers use Gestalt principles to help students understand how different pieces of information fit together to form a complete concept.
•	Example: Teaching math by showing how different formulas and operations work together to solve problems, helping students see the overall process.

3. Advertising• Application: Advertisers use Gestalt principles to create ads that capture attention and make messages clear. They arrange images and text in a way that communicates a strong, unified message.
   • Example: Designing an ad where the layout leads the viewer’s eye through the important information in a logical order, making the ad more memorable and effective.
4. Problem Solving• Application: Understanding Gestalt psychology can help in problem-solving by recognizing patterns and seeing the big picture, rather than focusing on isolated parts.
   • Example: In troubleshooting technical issues, seeing how different symptoms relate to a single problem can lead to quicker and more effective solutions.

Therapy and Counseling

•	Application: Therapists use Gestalt principles to help clients see how different aspects of their life and behavior are connected, leading to better understanding and resolution of personal issues.
•	Example: Helping a client recognize patterns in their relationships and behaviors to improve their overall well-being.

Question 18

Which psychological theory
Focuses on the creative potential and psychological health of human beings while emphasising the individual’s interpretation of events.
Which two people pioneered it

Answer 18

Humanistic Psychology

Pioneered by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

In Humanistic Psychology, emphasizing the individual’s interpretation of events means focusing on how people perceive and understand their own experiences rather than just looking at external or objective facts.

Here’s a breakdown:

Subjective Experience

•	Personal Perspective: Humanistic Psychology values each person’s unique perspective and how they interpret events in their lives. It recognizes that individuals experience and understand situations differently based on their own feelings, beliefs, and past experiences.
•	Meaning Making: It’s not just about what happens to someone, but how they make sense of and find meaning in those events. This personal interpretation shapes their emotional responses and overall well-being.

Individual Interpretation

•	Self-Perception: How a person views themselves and their experiences affects their mental health and behavior. For example, one person might see a failure as a learning opportunity, while another might see it as a personal defeat.

Question 19

Which theory in psychology Focuses on the processes of thinking, memory and organising and storing information.
Who pioneered it?

Answer 19

Cognitive psychology

Pioneered by Noam Chomsky.

Question 20

Which theory in psychology
Focuses on the underlying physiology involved in all forms of behaviour and mental processes.
•

Who pioneere d it?

Answer 20

Physiological

Pioneered by Hermann von Helmholtz

Question 21

Which theory of physiology Investigates brain functioning and conduction of nerve impulses.

Answer 21

Physiological

In the context of psychology, the investigation of brain functioning and the conduction of nerve impulses falls under the domain of neuroscience or neuropsychology. Here’s how these fields are related:

1. Neuroscience

Definition: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that explores how brain function affects behavior and cognitive processes. It involves assessing and understanding the relationships between brain injuries, neurological conditions, and psychological functioning.

Question 22

Which theory in psychology Also investigates the role of heredity in normal and abnormal behaviours.

Answer 22

Physiological

Question 23

Which theory of psychology
Focuses on why a particular behaviour or physical structure developed and how that behaviour or structure aids its adaptation to the environment.
Who pioneered it?

Answer 23

Evolutionary

Pioneered by Charles Darwin

Question 24

Which type of psychology involves extra sensory perception and why?

Answer 24

Parapsychology involves Extrasensory Perceptions (ESP); which does not lend itself to rigorous scientific scrutiny.

PARAPSYCHOLOGY
•cuz it is about events which cannot be verified by a second or third party or through any scientific methods.

Question 25

State and explain four examples of parapsychology

Answer 25

Clairvoyance: The ability to see and give account of what is happening at a particular place at a particular time without having any prior knowledge of the event(s).

•Telepathy: Transfer of thought from one person to another without the mediation of any known channel of communication.
•Precognition: The ability to perceive and accurately predict or foretell future events. It is the acquisition of information about events which will exist or occur in the future without any prior knowledge.
•Psychokinesis: This simply means the power of mind over matter. It is the ability of the individual to exert influence over animate and inanimate objects by will.

Alright, let’s try a different approach:

• Imagine: You have a magic crystal ball that shows you what will happen in the future.
• Example: You dream that your friend will get a new puppy next week, and then it happens just like you saw.

• Imagine: You have special glasses that let you see things far away or hidden from you.
• Example: You can “see” what’s in your friend’s backpack even though you’re not with them, or you know where your lost toy is in your room without looking for it.

• Precognition: You see what’s going to happen in the future.
• Clairvoyance: You see or know about things that are happening right now or are far away, even if you can’t see them directly.

Precognition and clairvoyance are both terms related to extrasensory perception (ESP), but they refer to different types of psychic experiences:

• Definition: Precognition refers to the ability to perceive or gain knowledge about future events before they occur. This “seeing into the future” involves having a sense of events that will happen at a later time.
• Characteristics:
  
  • Future Knowledge: Involves knowledge or visions of future events that are not yet known to the individual.
  • Timing: The information or insight gained through precognition is about events that have not yet taken place.
• Example: Dreaming about a specific event, like a car accident, and later experiencing or hearing about that exact event happening in real life.

• Definition: Clairvoyance, on the other hand, refers to the ability to gain information about objects, people, or events that are distant in space or time, without using the usual five senses. It is often described as “seeing” things beyond normal perception.
• Characteristics:
  
  • Distant Perception: Involves perceiving information about events or objects that are not physically present or that are far away in space or time.
  • No Physical Interaction: The information is obtained without direct sensory input or physical interaction with the object or event.
• Example: Being able to describe a specific object or situation in a different location or even in another part of the world without having been there.

• Temporal Focus:
  
  • Precognition: Concerned with knowledge of future events.
  • Clairvoyance: Concerned with gaining information about present or past events that are not accessible through normal sensory perception.
• Type of Information:
  
  • Precognition: Knowledge about upcoming events that will occur in the future.
  • Clairvoyance: Information about things happening at a distance, whether they are current, past, or future.
• Perceptual Method:
  
  • Precognition: Usually involves intuitive or visionary experiences related to the future.
  • Clairvoyance: Involves perceiving information that is not accessible through ordinary sensory means, often through “seeing” or “sensing” distant events or objects.

Question 1:
Which term refers to gaining knowledge about future events before they occur?
- A. Clairvoyance
- B. Telepathy
- C. Precognition
- D. Psychokinesis

Answer: C. Precognition

Question 2:
What is the primary characteristic of clairvoyance?
- A. Knowledge of future events
- B. Perception of distant or hidden objects and events
- C. Communication with deceased individuals
- D. Control of physical objects with the mind

Answer: B. Perception of distant or hidden objects and events

Question 3:
If someone describes a scene in another city they have never visited, which term best describes this ability?
- A. Precognition
- B. Clairvoyance
- C. Telepathy
- D. Remote viewing

Answer: B. Clairvoyance

Question 26

What is one of the key elements of clairvoyance

Answer 26

One of the key elements of clairvoyance is the absence of prior knowledge of the events one claims to be perceiving and/or reporting.

Question 27

What is also referred to as mental influence over physical event without the influence of any known physical force.

Answer 27

Psychokinesis

Question 28

What is the name given to practices which are given the semblance of psychology but which in the real sense of the world are not. It is false, fake and unsubstantiated.?

Answer 28

Pseudopsychology

Question 29

State and explain three examples of pseudopsychology

Answer 29

Pseudopsychology relies on some physical features of an individual to predict his/her future.
➢Palmistry: The claim and belief that the lines and patterns of an individuals palms have something to do with his/her personality and that the nature of the lines and the pattern could be used to predict one’s future or destiny, success or otherwise.

•Graphology: It is the belief that an individual handwriting reveals his or her personality, and that it could be used to predict one’s performance on the job.

•Phrenology: It is the belief that the bumps on one’s head and the shape of one’s skull determine one’s personality, intelligence and other individual characteristics

Question 30

Graphology is different from an aspect of Forensic psychology in which an expert can determine whether a signature was a bona fide of a specific person or was forgery. These experts can ascertain whether a specific writing was by person “A” or person “B”.
True or false

Answer 30

True

Question 31

What are the two main fields of psychology

Answer 31

There are fundamentally two main categories.
•Basic:
•Research and accumulation of knowledge
•Applied or practice:
•Application of psychological knowledge in tackling practical problems.

Question 32

State six branches of basic psychology

Answer 32

1.Biological Psychological/ Behavioural Neuroscience/ Psychobiology/biopsychology
2. Developmental Psychology:
3.Experimental Psychology:
4.Comparative Psychology:
5.Abnormal behavior : Mental illnesses. Psychopathologies. Psychological disorders. Abnormal behaviour.
6.personality
7.social psychology

Question 33

Which branch of basic psychology Deals with How the nervous system and other organs provide the basis for behaviour. It also studies animal behaviour both to compare it with human behaviour and to gain better understanding of other species

Answer 33

Biological Psychological/ Behavioural Neuroscience/ Psychobiology

Question 34

Which branch of basic psychology Deals with How the nervous system and other organs provide the basis for behaviour. It also studies animal behaviour both to compare it with human behaviour and to gain better understanding of other species

Answer 34

Biological Psychological/ Behavioural Neuroscience/ Psychobiology

Question 35

Which branch of basic psychology is Concerned with changes that take place with people during their life span, as they grow form birth to old age

Answer 35

Developmental psychology

Question 36

Which branch of basic psychology Relies extensively on the experimental method to gather information in areas such as sensation, emotion, communications, learning and memory, perception and problem solving.

Answer 36

Experimental psychology

Question 37

Which branch of basic psychology Focuses on the more or less consistent ways of behaving that characterise our personalities.

Answer 37

Personality

Question 38

Which branch of basic psychology is Mainly concerned with the classification causes, development and the treatment of psychological behavioural problems.

Answer 38

Abnormal behavior

Question 39

Which branches of basic psychology:
1. Concerned with the study of the relationship between animal behaviour and that of man.
2.Concerned with study of the influence of other people and social institutions on one’s behaviour.

Answer 39

1.Comparative psychology
2. Social Psychology

Question 40

What are branches of applied psychology?

Answer 40

Industrial and Organisational Psychology
Clinical psychology
Educational psychology
School psychology
Forensic psychology
Medical psychology
Psychometrics

Question 41

Which branch of applied psychology is Concerned with the problems people face at work, personnel selection, training in industry, job evaluation, performance appraisal, organisational and industrial relations

Answer 41

Industrial and Organisational Psychology

Question 42

Which branch of applied psychology Concentrates on diagnosis, classification, prevention and treatment of psychological disorders. It is also deals with helping people to make decisions about life transitions such as marriage, career, and other life adjustments.

Answer 42

Clinical psychology

•	Scope:
•	Abnormal Psychology: Focuses more on understanding and categorizing abnormal behavior and mental disorders.
•	Clinical Psychology: Involves direct intervention and treatment to address psychological issues and improve mental health.
•	Application:
•	Abnormal Psychology: Primarily theoretical and research-oriented, aiming to understand the nature and causes of mental disorders.
•	Clinical Psychology: Practically oriented, focusing on clinical practice and therapeutic techniques to help individuals manage psychological problems.
•	Professional Role:
•	Abnormal Psychology: Often involves research, teaching, and theoretical work in understanding mental health conditions.
•	Clinical Psychology: Includes direct clinical work with patients, including assessment, diagnosis, and treatment.

Question 43

Which branch of applied psychology Concentrates on diagnosis, classification, prevention and treatment of psychological disorders. It is also deals with helping people to make decisions about life transitions such as marriage, career, and other life adjustments.

Answer 43

Clinical psychology

Question 44

Which branch of applied psychology Conducts research on classroom dynamics (teaching and learning processes) and evaluate educational programme

Answer 44

Educational
Psychology

Question 45

Which branch of applied psychology Does counselling of students, detects and treats learning disabilities; improves learning and motivation in the classroom.

Answer 45

School psychology

Question 46

Which branch of applied psychology Involves the study of crime and legal processes, and the management of offenders. It covers the study of crime and crime prevention; rehabilitation programmes in prisons courtroom dynamics.

Answer 46

Forensic psychology

Question 47

Which branch of applied psychology Studies the relationship between stress, personality and diseases; eg. Heart attacks, high blood pressure and ulcers. Manages emotional problems associated with illness and disability.

Answer 47

Medical psychology

Question 48

Which branch of applied psychology is Concerned with the construction and usage of psychological tests. These tests are used to evaluate characteristics such as intelligence, attitudes and personality. Such tests are used in many areas such as industry, education and clinical settings

Answer 48

Psychometrics

Question 49

Solve the questions in the psychology slide😌

Question 50

Psychology is the
Mental, emotional and behavioral functioning of animals and humans

Types:
Scientific psychology:scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organisms physical state,mental state and environment OR the scientific study of Mental, emotional and behavioral functioning of animals and humans

Folk or non scientific psychology : doesn’t subject itself to scientific procedures

What is behaviour?

Main goals:
Describing different ways organisms behave
Understanding causes of behaviour
Predicting how organisms will behave in certain situations
Control: modifying behavior by changing conditions. Control by changing or modifying behavior

Emotions fuel your decision or choice to behave a certain way. E means inside out
Motions are movements. Etymology of “Emotion”:
• Latin Origin:
• “Emotio”: Latin for “a moving out” or “a movement.”
• “Emotio” comes from the verb “emovere”:
• “E-” (or “ex-”): A prefix meaning “out.”
• “Movere”: A verb meaning “to move.”
2. Breaking Down the Components:
• “E-”: Prefix meaning “out,” implying a movement or expression outward.
• “Movere”: Root word meaning “to move,” indicating action or chang

What feeds emotions:
The mind. What you think about.
What is a thought? After thinking is done, the end result is a thought

What is thinking?
Process of processing information

Uses of mind:
Thinking
Reasoning
Consciousness
Memorizing
Learning
remembering

Thought to mind to emotions to decisions to actions or behaviors

Pillars of psychology:
Reasons for behaviors-
Cognitive
Developmental
Sociological
Social and personality
Mental and physical health

Scientific Psychology divided into:
- [ ] Research: part that deals with research where you increase your knowledge base
- [ ] Practice or Application: Part that deals with practicing where you apply the knowledge from the research to solve human real world problems

Non scientific part of psychology:
Spiritual influence on behavior
Study of the spirit, soul, body and behaviour

Soul: integration of these three things. mind emotion will
Soul is Greek meaning of word psyche. Psyche is also the mind.
Logos is study of or knowledge

American psychologists reduce it to objectivism or reductionism cuz they cannot study the spirit

Summary:

In American psychology, objectivism and reductionism are used to study psychological phenomena due to challenges in examining abstract or subjective aspects like the “spirit.”

• Objectivism:
  
  • Focuses on observable, measurable data.
  • Uses empirical evidence and standardized methods.
  • May overlook subjective experiences.
• Reductionism:
  
  • Breaks down complex phenomena into simpler components.
  • Analyzes basic processes underlying behaviors and mental states.
  • Can oversimplify complex interactions.

Both approaches prioritize empirical and measurable aspects, addressing limitations in studying more abstract or subjective dimensions of human experience.

Abnormal psychology: Mental illnesses. Psychopathologies. Psychological disorders. Abnormal behaviour.

Causes of abnormal behaviour:
Biological
Psychodynamic
Environmental
Cognitive
Behavioral

Summary of Causes of Abnormal Behavior:

1. Biological: Abnormal behavior is due to genetic factors, brain structure and function, neurotransmitter imbalances, and hormonal changes.
2. Psychodynamic: Abnormal behavior results from unresolved unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences.
3. Environmental: External factors such as life stressors, trauma, and socio-cultural influences contribute to abnormal behavior.
4. Cognitive: Dysfunctional thinking patterns and cognitive distortions are central to abnormal behavior.
5. Behavioral: Abnormal behavior is learned through conditioning, reinforcement, and environmental interactions.

What qualifies a behaviour as abnormal:
Deviance:must deviate from the norm
Distress:
Dysfunction
Danger

It must be of all the four above before it can be defined as negative abnormal. Only one present doesn’t mean it’s negative abnormal.

Positive and negative abnormal behaviors

OCD causes distress so it’s a negative abnormal behavior
Giftedness,talentedness is a positive abnormal behavior
Manufacturers and inventors are abnormal people but it was a positive abnormal behaviour

Behavioral psychology or behaviorism:
Earliest traditional psychology.
This is a learning theory.
Changing behaviour using conditioning.
Uses classical and operant conditioning.
For a behaviour to become weak or strong, it’ll be done by conditioning.

Burrhus Frederic skinner: theory of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is also called instrumental conditioning theory or theory of reinforcement

Punishment means withdrawing the reward.
The experiment with rats.

Classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
This was done first then after, BF skinner brought his

Then later, trial and error learning came about by Edward Lee thorndike :
- [ ] Law of exercise- this makes the law of use and disuse. Keep practicing something . Related to strengthening a connection of stimulus or cause and response or behaviour by repetitions behaviour is caused. Law of disused means if you don’t use it, it’ll go
- [ ] Law of readiness: if you’re not ready to learn something, you can’t learn it effectively. You’re not curious about it.
- [ ] Law of effect : based on motivation and reinforcement to make learning pleasant for learners. It shows natural tendency to like things that are pleasant.

Biopsychology : study of brain and how it influences behaviors
Biological factors influence how people think feel and behave
Biological processes :brain, neurons ,spinal cord and nervous system.
Example; brain influences mood,fear. Part of the brain that triggers fear(medulla in limbic system. Check??)
Part of brain that deals with emotions(limbic system)

The amygdala is the part of the brain primarily responsible for triggering fear. It plays a key role in processing emotions, especially fear and other emotional reactions, by detecting threats and triggering the body’s fight-or-flight response. The amygdala is part of the limbic system, which is involved in emotional regulation and processing.

Amygdala: Responsible for processing emotions such as fear, aggression, and pleasure.
2. Hippocampus: Critical for forming and retrieving memories, particularly emotional memories.
3. Hypothalamus: Regulates autonomic functions, emotional responses, and hormone release.
4. Thalamus: Relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and regulates consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
5. Cingulate gyrus: Involved in emotional regulation, decision-making, and linking behavioral outcomes to motivation.
6. Fornix: A bundle of nerve fibers that acts as a major output tract for the hippocampus, connecting it to other parts of the limbic system.
7. Mammillary bodies: Important for recollective memory and are part of the memory circuits connected to the hippocampus.

Cognitive psychology, neuroscience,biological psychology,basic psychology,experimental psychology,biology,physiology and neuroscience,psychobiology(psychology influences biology)

They study brain injuries and disease and how these things affect human behaviour

Clinical psychology; psychology in clinic

Parts of the brain and their problems. Parts of the lobes and their functions.

Answer 50

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres (left and right), each with four lobes. It is involved in higher brain functions, including sensory perception, voluntary movement, reasoning, and problem-solving. The cerebrum has four lobes in each hemisphere, so in total, there are eight lobes, two of each type—one in each hemisphere. The four types of lobes are:
2. Frontal lobe (2 total, one in each hemisphere): Responsible for reasoning, planning, movement, problem-solving, and parts of speech.
3. Parietal lobe (2 total): Involved in processing sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain.
4. Temporal lobe (2 total): Important for processing auditory information, memory, and speech.
5. Occipital lobe (2 total): Primarily responsible for visual processing.

So, while there are 8 total lobes (4 on each side), there are only 4 distinct types of lobes.

2. Cerebellum: Located under the cerebrum at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordination, balance, and fine motor skills. Problems here can lead to issues with movement and coordination.
3. Brainstem: Includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. It controls vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and sleep-wake cycles. Damage to the brainstem can be life-threatening as it controls essential bodily functions.
4. Diencephalon: Contains the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory and motor signals, while the hypothalamus regulates homeostasis, including temperature, hunger, and thirst. Problems in this area can affect sensory perception and autonomic functions.
5. Limbic System: Includes structures like the hippocampus and amygdala. It is involved in emotions, memory, and motivation. Issues here can lead to memory problems and emotional disturbances.

1. Frontal Lobe:
   
   • Functions: Responsible for higher cognitive functions such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling voluntary movements. It also influences personality and behavior.
   • Problems: Damage can result in changes in personality, difficulty in planning and organizing, problems with voluntary movement, and impaired problem-solving skills.
2. Parietal Lobe:
   
   • Functions: Handles sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. It also integrates sensory information to form a spatial awareness of the environment.
   • Problems: Issues can include difficulty in perceiving touch or pain, problems with spatial orientation, and difficulty in understanding sensory information.
3. Temporal Lobe:
   
   • Functions: Involved in processing auditory information, memory, and language comprehension. It contains the hippocampus, which is crucial for memory formation.
   • Problems: Damage can result in difficulties with memory, hearing, and understanding language. It can also lead to issues with processing complex sensory information.
4. Occipital Lobe:
   
   • Functions: Primarily responsible for visual processing. It interprets visual stimuli and is essential for recognizing objects and interpreting visual information.
   • Problems: Damage can cause visual disturbances, such as blindness or difficulty in recognizing objects and faces.

Understanding these areas helps in diagnosing and treating neurological disorders and understanding their impact on cognitive and physical functions.

Here are five multiple-choice questions (MCQs) focused on parts of the brain involved in mood, emotions, and psychological functions:

1. Which part of the limbic system is primarily involved in the formation and retrieval of memories?
   
   • A) Amygdala
   • B) Hippocampus
   • C) Thalamus
   • D) Hypothalamus
   Answer: B) Hippocampus
2. The amygdala is crucial for processing which type of emotional responses?
   
   • A) Sensory perception
   • B) Fear and aggression
   • C) Motor coordination
   • D) Balance and equilibrium
   Answer: B) Fear and aggression
3. Which structure in the limbic system is involved in regulating emotional responses and connecting them with physiological changes?
   
   • A) Hippocampus
   • B) Amygdala
   • C) Hypothalamus
   • D) Corpus callosum
   Answer: C) Hypothalamus
4. Damage to which part of the brain might lead to difficulties in recognizing emotional expressions in others?
   
   • A) Cerebellum
   • B) Occipital lobe
   • C) Amygdala
   • D) Parietal lobe
   Answer: C) Amygdala
5. Which part of the brain is involved in processing and regulating emotions related to social behavior and decision-making?
   
   • A) Frontal lobe
   • B) Occipital lobe
   • C) Temporal lobe
   • D) Parietal lobe
   Answer: A) Frontal lobe

The limbic system is a complex set of structures located deep within the brain, crucial for emotional regulation, memory, and certain aspects of behavior. Here’s a detailed look at its components and their functions:

1. Amygdala:
   
   • Function: The amygdala is central to processing emotions, particularly fear, pleasure, and aggression. It helps in forming emotional memories and attaching emotional significance to experiences. It also influences the fight-or-flight response.
   • Complementary Role: It interacts with the hippocampus to associate emotions with memories.
2. Hippocampus:
   
   • Function: The hippocampus is vital for the formation, organization, and retrieval of memories. It plays a key role in converting short-term memories into long-term memories and spatial navigation.
   • Complementary Role: It works closely with the amygdala to integrate emotional context with memories.
3. Hypothalamus:
   
   • Function: The hypothalamus regulates homeostatic processes such as hunger, thirst, temperature control, and sleep-wake cycles. It also controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine responses, influencing emotional states by affecting physiological responses.
   • Complementary Role: It interacts with the amygdala and other limbic structures to modulate emotional and physiological responses.
4. Cingulate Gyrus:
   
   • Function: This structure is involved in emotional regulation, attention, and pain perception. It plays a role in processing emotions and linking them to cognitive functions.
   • Complementary Role: It integrates sensory input with emotional responses and helps in managing emotional reactions to pain and stress.
5. Fornix:
   
   • Function: The fornix is a major fiber tract that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the limbic system, including the mammillary bodies and the septal nuclei. It is essential for memory processing and recall.
   • Complementary Role: It acts as a conduit for communication between the hippocampus and other limbic structures, facilitating memory formation and emotional regulation.
6. Mammillary Bodies:
   
   • Function: These structures are involved in memory processing and recall. They are part of the Papez circuit, which is important for emotional and memory processing.
   • Complementary Role: They work with the hippocampus and fornix to support memory formation and retrieval.
7. Septal Nuclei:
   
   • Function: The septal nuclei are involved in reward processing, pleasure, and emotional regulation. They are associated with the regulation of social behaviors and emotional responses.
   • Complementary Role: They interact with other limbic structures to influence emotional and social behavior.

• Emotional Regulation: It processes and modulates emotions, linking them to both physiological responses and behavior.
• Memory Formation: It helps in forming, storing, and retrieving memories, particularly those with emotional significance.
• Behavioral Responses: It influences behaviors related to survival, such as feeding, reproduction, and social interactions.
• Homeostasis: It helps in regulating physiological processes that affect emotional states, such as hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

The limbic system’s integrated functions are crucial for understanding and managing emotions, forming memories, and influencing behaviors related to survival and social interactions.

Aspect,Folk Psychology,Pseudopsychology,Parapsychology
Definition,Common-sense beliefs about behavior,False psychology that claims scientific basis,Study of unexplained or paranormal phenomena
Scientific Method,No,No,Yes (attempted)
Empirical Evidence,None,None,Limited and often criticized
Examples,“She’s upset because she didn’t sleep well.”,Phrenology, Astrology,Telepathy, Near-death experiences
Credibility,Everyday reasoning, not scientific,Discredited by science,Controversial, not widely accepted
Approach,Subjective, intuitive,Unfalsifiable claims presented as fact,Scientific methods applied to paranormal phenomena
Main Focus,Understanding behavior through common sense,Presenting false or untested claims,Investigating paranormal or anomalous phenomena

Look at picture on difference between parapsychology,pseudo psychology and folk psychology or non scientific psychology

Folk psychology is informal and based on everyday understanding.
• Pseudopsychology pretends to be scientific but lacks any genuine scientific basis.
• Parapsychology tries to apply scientific methods to study paranormal phenomena but remains controversial due to the lack of solid empirical evidence.

Question 51

State the laws that Thorndike brought about under behaviorism theory

Answer 51

Yes, Edward Thorndike proposed three key principles in his work on learning and behavior. These are known as Thorndike’s Laws of Learning:

1. Law of Effect:
   
   • Definition: This law states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. It emphasizes the role of rewards and punishments in shaping behavior.
2. Law of Exercise:
   
   • Definition: This law posits that connections between stimuli and responses are strengthened through repeated practice and use. In other words, the more frequently a response is practiced in the presence of a stimulus, the stronger the association between them becomes.
   • Components:
     
     • Law of Use: Repeated use of a stimulus-response connection strengthens it.
     • Law of Disuse: Connections that are not used become weaker over time.
3. Law of Readiness:
   
   • Definition: This law suggests that individuals learn more effectively when they are ready to learn and when the learning process is satisfying. Learning is most effective when the learner is in a state of readiness or motivation to engage with the material.

These laws laid the groundwork for the development of behaviorist theories and practices, emphasizing how learning is influenced by experience, repetition, and readiness.

Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, was developed by B.F. Skinner. However, Edward Thorndike was the precursor to Skinner’s work through his development of instrumental conditioning and the Law of Effect.

• Edward Thorndike:
  
  • Instrumental Conditioning: Thorndike’s work involved studying how behaviors are shaped by their consequences. His experiments with animals, such as cats in puzzle boxes, led to the formulation of the Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
  • Influence: Thorndike’s work laid the groundwork for the study of how consequences influence behavior, which Skinner expanded upon.
• B.F. Skinner:
  
  • Operant Conditioning: Skinner built on Thorndike’s ideas to develop the theory of operant conditioning, focusing on how reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment affect behavior. He conducted extensive research using devices like the Skinner box (operant conditioning chamber) to study how animals and humans learn through interactions with their environment.
  • Concepts: Skinner introduced concepts such as reinforcement schedules, shaping, and behavior modification, which are central to operant conditioning.

In summary, while Thorndike’s early work laid the foundation for understanding behavior through consequences, Skinner advanced and formalized these ideas into the comprehensive theory of operant conditioning.

Question 52

The image illustrates Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment, which is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology. Here’s a breakdown of the process shown:

1. Before Conditioning (Unconditioned Stimulus & Response)
   
   • Food is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally causes the dog to salivate.
   • The dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR), an automatic reaction to the food.
2. Before Conditioning (Neutral Stimulus)
   
   • A bell is rung, but the dog does not salivate because the bell is a neutral stimulus (NS), meaning it has no associated response yet.
3. During Conditioning (Pairing of NS and UCS)
   
   • The bell (neutral stimulus) is rung before presenting food (unconditioned stimulus).
   • The dog still salivates (unconditioned response) because of the food.
4. After Conditioning (Conditioned Stimulus & Response)
   
   • After repeated pairings, the bell alone becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).
   • Now, the bell triggers the dog to salivate even without the food being present, which is now a conditioned response (CR).

This experiment demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (the bell) could, through association with an unconditioned stimulus (food), become a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting a learned response (salivation). This is the essence of classical conditioning.

Question 53

Biopsychology

Area in psychology focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous system influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This field draws upon many different disciplines, including basic psychology, cognitive psychology, experimental psychology, biology, physiology, and neuroscience.

People who work in this type of psychology often study how brain injuries and brain diseases impact human behavior.

Biopsychology is also sometimes referred to as physiological psychology,behavioral neuroscience,or psychobiology

Question 54

School psychology and educational psychology both deal with aspects of learning, but they focus on different areas within the education system, particularly when it comes to learning disabilities.

• Primary Focus: School psychologists focus on supporting individual students’ mental health, learning, and behavior, particularly those with learning disabilities, emotional difficulties, or behavioral issues.
• Learning Disabilities: School psychologists often work directly with students who have learning disabilities to assess their needs and provide interventions. They may conduct evaluations, create individualized education programs (IEPs), and collaborate with teachers, parents, and other professionals to help students succeed academically.
• Responsibilities: Include diagnosing learning disabilities, addressing emotional and behavioral challenges, providing counseling, and developing strategies to support students’ learning and mental health within a school setting.

• Primary Focus: Educational psychology focuses on how people learn in general and the best methods to facilitate learning. Educational psychologists research teaching methods, learning processes, motivation, and curriculum development to improve educational outcomes.
• Learning Disabilities: While educational psychologists might study learning disabilities as part of their research on how students learn, they do not usually work directly with individual students. Instead, they may focus on developing teaching strategies or interventions that can be applied in classroom settings to help students with diverse learning needs, including those with disabilities.

• School psychology is more practical and student-centered, directly addressing individual students’ learning disabilities and behavioral needs within the school.
• Educational psychology is more theoretical and system-oriented, focusing on understanding the learning process and developing educational practices that support all types of learners.

In short, school psychology deals more directly with learning disabilities at the individual level, while educational psychology focuses on broader research and strategies to improve learning environments.