Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning

A

Learning can be defined as the process by which any relatively permanent change in behaviour occurs as a result of practice and/or experience.

Behaviour can be mental (thought or image)

Or observable (fainting, throwing up, drooling

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2
Q

When learning takes place, you have been conditioned
Learning is a change that takes place through what?
Before learning can be called learning, what must take place ?

A

Learning is a change of behaviour, for better or worse:

It is a change that takes place through practice or experience; changes due to growth, maturation, fatigue or injury are not included in learning;

Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent, that is it must last fairly long time. For example, once an individual learns to ride a cycle he usually does not forget it.

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3
Q

The change in behaviour needs to occur immediately following the experience of learning. True or false

A

False
The change in behaviour needs not occur immediately following the experience. The behaviour can be expressed later. Eg. Dancing, use of maths to perform operations, etc.

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4
Q

State and define the three types of learning

A

Classical Conditioning: involve the involuntary reflexes.

Operant Conditioning: involve voluntary behaviours.

Cognitive Learning: Using mental processes, perhaps imitating others.

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5
Q

Both classical and operant conditioning are called what together?

A

Associative learning
Because you learn by associating two events together that happen at the same time.

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6
Q

What is classical conditioning
Other names for classical conditioning are?(state two)

A

It a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

It is also known as respondent conditioning or pavlovian conditioning.

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7
Q

What did Ivan Pavlov experiments highlight?

A

His experiments highlighted the basic principles of how organisms learn through association.

Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
Russian
Physiologist
interested in
studying the
digestive processes
of dogs.

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8
Q

How was Pavlovs experiment on conditioning done?
What is the neutral stimulus,conditioned response,unconditioned response,unconditioned stimulus,conditioned stimulus in the experiment Pavlov did?

A

Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s experiment on conditioning, also known as classical conditioning, involved studying how animals (particularly dogs in his famous experiments) could be trained to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflex response.

Here’s a simplified explanation of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment:

  1. Initial Setup:
    • Pavlov used dogs in his experiments. Normally, dogs naturally salivate (produce saliva) when they see or smell food. Initial Observations: Pavlov noticed that dogs would start to salivate not only when food was presented but also when they saw the lab assistant who fed them or heard the sounds associated with feeding.
  2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) and Unconditioned Stimulus (US):
    • Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus, such as a bell or a metronome, before presenting the dogs with food (which naturally elicited salivation). The bell or metronome at first did not elicit a salivary response from the dogs.
  3. Conditioning Process:
    • Initially, the bell (neutral stimulus) does not elicit any salivation from the dogs.
    • Pavlov then paired the neutral stimulus (bell) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), which naturally caused the dogs to salivate (unconditioned response).
  4. Establishing Association:
    • After repeated pairings of the bell with the food, the dogs started to associate the bell with the food. They began to salivate in response to the bell alone, even when food was not presented.
  5. Conditioned Response (CR):
    • Eventually, the sound of the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) became enough to elicit salivation from the dogs. This salivation in response to the bell, which originally was neutral, is called the conditioned response.

Key Points:
- Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially, the bell did not elicit salivation. Pavlov used a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, which initially did not elicit any salivatory response from the dogs.

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): The presentation of food naturally caused salivation. He presented food (an unconditioned stimulus) to the dogs, which naturally and reflexively caused them to salivate (unconditioned response, UCR).
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The bell, after being paired with the food.
  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural salivation in response to food.
  • Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation in response to the bell alone, after conditioning.

Pavlov’s experiment demonstrated that animals (and humans) could learn to associate neutral stimuli with meaningful events, altering their behavior based on these learned associations. This research laid the foundation for understanding how learning and behavioral conditioning work in both animals and humans.

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9
Q

Explain Pavlovs conditioning process

A

CONDITIONING PROCESS
1.Pairing of Stimuli: Pavlov repeatedly paired the NS (bell) with the UCS (food). During this phase, the NS would be presented just before the food.

2.Acquisition: After several pairings, the dogs began to associate the NS with the UCS. Eventually, the NS alone (now a Conditioned Stimulus, CS) would elicit salivation (now a conditioned response, CR).

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10
Q

Under Pavlov’s experiment:
What is classical conditioning
What is generalization
What is discrimination
What is extinction
What is spontaneous recovery

A

Key Findings
1.Classical Conditioning: Pavlov demonstrated that a NS could become a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting a conditioned response through association.
2.Generalization: Dogs would also respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. For example, if a different tone of bell was used, the dogs would still salivate.
3.Discrimination: Dogs could learn to distinguish between different stimuli if only one specific stimulus was consistently paired with the UCS.
4.Extinction: If the CS was repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the CR would gradually diminish and eventually disappear.
5.Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, if some time passed and the CS was presented again, the CR could briefly reappear

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11
Q

Under classical conditioning terminology what is a stimulus,unconditional stimulus,unconditional response,neutral stimulus,conditioned stimulus,conditioned response

A

Stimulus: Object that excites our sense organs.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that will evoke a response without training. Eg. Food.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The response to an unconditioned stimulus. Eg. Salivation.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not elicit (draw forth or bring about) the unconditioned (or reflexive) response eg. Tone, music etc
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A NS that is paired with a UCS, and comes to provoke the same response as the UCS (in the absence of the US). Eg. Tone.
Conditioned Response (CR): The same response as the UCR, but now to a CS, rather than to a UCS. Eg. Salivation

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12
Q

Under principles of classical conditioning,what is stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
What is extinction?
What is spontaneous discovery

A

Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not only to the original stimulus also to other similar stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination: The process of learning to make one response to one stimulus and a different response, or no response to another stimulus.

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction: CS is presented alone without the UCS for a number of trials.

Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR.

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13
Q

State five everyday examples of classical conditioning

A

Police siren
Ambulance siren
Warning tardy bell
Smell of freshly baked bread
Taste aversions

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14
Q

What is operant conditioning
This theory was developed by who?
State three concepts in operant conditioning

A

A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated.
The theory was developed by B.F. Skinner, building on Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect.
Key concepts or principle in operant conditioning include reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.

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15
Q

Explain thorndikes experiment and law of effect

A

Placed a hungry cat inside the box and shut the Door.
Placed some food on a dish outside the box that the cat could see through the slots in the crate.
The cat had to figure out how to open the door to get the food.
Cat accidentally hit the latch and the door opened – cat got to eat.
Law of Effect
It states that behaviours followed by satisfying consequences (rewards) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences (punishments) are less likely to be repeated.
Consequences of an action influence the likelihood of that action being performed in the future

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
Cats placed in Thorndike’s puzzle box learned to make their escape through a random process of trial and error.

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16
Q

Explain BF Skinners experiment

A

The Skinner Box that contained a lever or a button that an animal (usually a rat or pigeon) could press to obtain a reward, such as food or water.
An animal placed inside the Skinner Box would explore and, through trial and error, discover that pressing the lever resulted in a reward.
Skinner manipulated the contingencies of reinforcement to observe different patterns of behaviour.

17
Q

Explain BF Skinners experiment

A

The Skinner Box that contained a lever or a button that an animal (usually a rat or pigeon) could press to obtain a reward, such as food or water.
An animal placed inside the Skinner Box would explore and, through trial and error, discover that pressing the lever resulted in a reward.
Skinner manipulated the contingencies of reinforcement to observe different patterns of behaviour.

18
Q

What is reinforcement and what are the two types?
What is punishment and what are the two types?
What is extinction

A

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behaviour.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Eg. Giving a child candy for completing homework.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Eg. Taking away a loud noise when a rat presses a lever.
Punishment: Any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behaviour.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Eg. Giving a student extra homework for being disruptive in class.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Eg. Not going for break.
Extinction: The process by which a previously reinforced behaviour is weakened by no longer providing reinforcement. Eg. if a rat no longer receives food for pressing a lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever.

19
Q

What is reinforcement and what are the two types?
What is punishment and what are the two types?
What is extinction

A

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behaviour.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Eg. Giving a child candy for completing homework.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Eg. Taking away a loud noise when a rat presses a lever.
Punishment: Any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behaviour.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Eg. Giving a student extra homework for being disruptive in class.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Eg. Not going for break.
Extinction: The process by which a previously reinforced behaviour is weakened by no longer providing reinforcement. Eg. if a rat no longer receives food for pressing a lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever.

20
Q

State the types of reinforcement schedules

A

The timing and frequency of reinforcement are critical in shaping behaviour. There are several types of reinforcement schedules:
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a set number of responses. Eg. A worker gets paid for every 10 items produced.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule is common in gambling, where the number of lever presses needed to win varies.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time has passed, assuming the desired behaviour has occurred. Eg. A weekly pay check.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after varying amounts of time have passed. Eg. Checking for a randomly arriving email.

21
Q

State the types of reinforcement schedules

A

The timing and frequency of reinforcement are critical in shaping behaviour. There are several types of reinforcement schedules:
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a set number of responses. Eg. A worker gets paid for every 10 items produced.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule is common in gambling, where the number of lever presses needed to win varies.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time has passed, assuming the desired behaviour has occurred. Eg. A weekly pay check.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after varying amounts of time have passed. Eg. Checking for a randomly arriving email.

22
Q

Explain the difference between classical and operant conditioning

A

In Operant Conditioning, reinforcement/punishment follows an action and is based on a voluntary response whilst in Classical conditioning is based on involuntary, reflexive response.

The organism operates on the environment that produced consequences whilst in classical conditioning there is automatic response to stimulus.

Operant responses tend to be voluntary and are said to be emitted rather elicited as in classical conditioning.

23
Q

Explain cognitive learning and state the key aspects of this cognitive learning
State the three types of cognitive learning

A

It involves mental processes such as thinking, understanding, problem-solving, and remembering.
Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.
Unlike associative learning, focus primarily on observable behaviours and external stimuli, cognitive learning emphasizes on the internal mental processes that occur during learning.
Key aspects of include the acquisition, processing, and use of knowledge.

Three types of cognitive learning:
Insight learning
Latent learning
Observational learning.

24
Q

Explain cognitive learning and state the key aspects of this cognitive learning
State the three types of cognitive learning

A

It involves mental processes such as thinking, understanding, problem-solving, and remembering.
Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.
Unlike associative learning, focus primarily on observable behaviours and external stimuli, cognitive learning emphasizes on the internal mental processes that occur during learning.
Key aspects of include the acquisition, processing, and use of knowledge.

Three types of cognitive learning:
Insight learning
Latent learning
Observational learning.

25
Q

Explain the process of insight learning

A

The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs.

We may call this moment of sudden insight the “Aha!” phenomenon

It does not depend on flash of inspiration or arise “out of the blue.”

Insight may occur by restructuring or reorganizing a problem in your mind until you see how the various parts fit together to form a solution.

26
Q

Explain the process of insight learning

A

The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs or until the pieces suddenly fit together to form a workable solution
Example is a person arriving at a solution to a problem after thinking about it from a different angle

We may call this moment of sudden insight the “Aha!” phenomenon

It does not depend on flash of inspiration or arise “out of the blue.”

Insight may occur by restructuring or reorganizing a problem in your mind until you see how the various parts fit together to form a solution.

27
Q

Explain the process of latent learning

A

Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided.

Learning has taken place but it is not demonstrated until circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.

This is learning that occurs but remains hidden until there is a reward for performing the learned behaviour

A common example is learning the lyrics to a song you may have heard repeatedly on the radio, even though you never made an effort to learn them or ever practiced them. Learning the lyrics may remain “latent” until someone prompts you to recite them at a party.

28
Q

Explain the process of observational learning?
This type of learning is influenced by what two things

A

Learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others (also called vicarious learning or modelling).

Through observational learning, one become capable of behaviours even before one has had the chance to perform them ourselves
Example is a child learning to imitate the gestures and habits of older people through observation

Observational Learning is influenced by;
Vicarious Reinforcement: the observed reinforcement of the behaviour of the model.
Vicarious Punishment: The Observed punishment of the behaviour of a mode

29
Q

State two factors affecting observational learning

A

Factors Affecting Observational Learning includes;
1.Characteristics of the Model (Competence, Prestige, Attractive)
2.Characteristics of the Observer
Age of the Learner
Learning History of the learner
Emotional State of the Learner